IV. CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS

CERD

•          Holy See, CERD, A/48/18 (1993) 58 at para. 303.

Given that educational activities are among the most important means of fighting racial prejudice and for harmony between different groups, further efforts should be focussed on the implementation of article 7 of the Convention and the State party should undertake further measures to promote equality of educational opportunities.

•          Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), CERD, A/48/18 (1993) 95 at para. 538.

Alarm is expressed over the deteriorating situation in Kosovo. A number of measures have been implemented there which are in violation of the provisions of the Convention, including the enactment of discriminatory laws, the closing of minority schools, the mass dismissal of Albanians from their jobs and the imposition of restrictions on the use of the Albanian language. Such measures result in the increasing marginalization of the Albanians in Kosovo.

•          France, CERD, A/49/18 (1994) 20 at para. 149.

Concern is expressed about social trends which result in segregation in areas of residence and in the school system.

•          Spain, CERD, A/49/18 (1994) 72 at para. 503.

Concern is expressed about de facto discrimination against members of the Gypsy community in housing, education and employment, and against migrant workers and foreign nationals in general.

•          Australia, CERD, A/49/18 (1994) 78 at paras. 545 and 548.

Paragraph 545

Aboriginals continue to suffer disadvantage in such areas as education, employment, housing and health services.

Paragraph 548

Measures to remedy any discrimination suffered by members of non-English-speaking minorities and aboriginals in the fields of the administration of justice, education, employment, housing and health services should be strengthened and the participation of all in the conduct of political affairs should be promoted. Law enforcement officials should receive more effective training to ensure that in the performance of their duties they respect as well as protect human dignity and maintain and uphold the human rights of all. Similarly, the State party should continue to strengthen its education and training programme.

•          Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), CERD, A/50/18 (1995) 48 at para. 244.

The immediate drafting and implementation of legislation, with a view to outlawing every manifestation of racial discrimination and fully implementing the Convention, is recommended. Particular attention should be paid to the legal regulation of matters such as the media and freedom of expression, employment and trade unions, the education system, and the health-care system.

•          Colombia, CERD, A/51/18 (1996) 15 at para. 48.

The persistence of structural discriminatory attitudes towards the indigenous and Afro-Colombian communities, appearing at various levels of the political, economic and social life of the country, is noted. Those discriminatory attitudes relate to, among other things, the right to life and security of the person, political participation, educational and occupational opportunities, access to basic public services, the right to health, the right to adequate housing, the application of the law, and land ownership and use.

•          Denmark, CERD, A/51/18 (1996) 17 at para. 68.

The "bussing" of schoolchildren should never be discriminatory in effect.

•          Zimbabwe, CERD, A/51/18 (1996) 20 at paras. 91 and 97.

Paragraph 91

Concern is expressed that the parallel systems of private schools for pupils whose parents can afford them, and public schools for others, results in a racially segregated school system.

Paragraph 97

Steps should be taken, by the Government and by the schools themselves, to reduce the deleterious consequences of the racial segregation created by the parallel systems of public and private schools.

•          United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, CERD, A/51/18 (1996) 35 at para. 232.

Deep concern is expressed that disproportionate numbers of black children are being excluded from schools.

•          Brazil, CERD, A/51/18 (1996) 45 at paras. 299 and 303.

Paragraph 299

A number of sources of information concur that discriminatory attitudes towards the indigenous, black and mestizo populations persist within Brazilian society and are apparent at a number of levels in the political, economic and social life of the country. These discriminatory attitudes concern, inter alia, the right to life and security of the person, political participation, access to education and employment, access to basic public services, the right to health, the right to decent housing, land ownership, land use and law enforcement.

Paragraph 303

Concern is expressed about the indigenous populations’ social protection and the discrimination they suffer in the spheres of health, education, culture, employment, access to public office and housing.

•          India, CERD, A/51/18 (1996) 51 at paras. 361 and 365.

Paragraph 361

Although constitutional provisions and legal texts exist to abolish untouchability and to protect the members of the scheduled castes and tribes, and although social and educational policies have been adopted to improve the situation of members of scheduled castes and tribes and to protect them from abuses, widespread discrimination against them and the relative impunity of those who abuse them point to the limited effect of these measures. Particular concern is expressed at reports that people belonging to the scheduled castes and tribes are often prevented from using public wells or from entering cafés or restaurants and that their children are sometimes separated from other children in schools, in violation of article 5 (f) of the Convention.

Paragraph 365

Special measures should be taken by the authorities to prevent acts of discrimination towards persons belonging to the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, and, in cases where such acts have been committed, to conduct thorough investigations, to punish those found responsible and to provide just and adequate reparation to the victims. The importance of the equal enjoyment by members of these groups of the rights to access to health care, education, work and public places and services, including wells, cafés or restaurants, is stressed.

•          China, CERD, A/51/18 (1996) 57 at paras. 407 and 420.

Paragraph 407

With respect to article 5 (e) (v) of the Convention, concern is expressed that at the secondary school and university levels children from minority nationalities are under represented. Moreover, concern is expressed that the instruction provided in the curricula on the history and culture of minority nationalities is not adequate as compared to the education provided concerning the history and culture of persons of the Han nationality.

Paragraph 420

With respect to article 5 (e) (v) of the Convention concerning the right to education, the State party should ensure access by members of minority nationalities to education at all levels and in autonomous areas, and instruction on the history and culture of the relevant minority nationalities should be included in the school curricula.

•          Namibia, CERD, A/51/18 (1996) 67 at paras. 496 and 500.

Paragraph 496

It is of concern that despite affirmative measures taken to eliminate social and economic disparities, black people and mixed race people (coloureds), who comprise 95 per cent of the population, still face serious discrimination in many areas, such as access to property, education, employment, health care and housing.

Paragraph 500

Concern is expressed about apparent delays in the process of desegregation in the field of education, as well as the persistence of serious difficulties faced by black children in their access to public and private education, particularly insofar as secondary and higher education are concerned.

•          Zaire, CERD, A/51/18 (1996) 70 at para. 526.

With regard to the full and equal enjoyment of the right to education and training, as provided for in article 5 (e) and (v) of the Convention, reports indicate that only 2 per cent of the national budget was earmarked for education, which affects the life and future of disadvantaged racial and ethnic sectors of the population.

•          United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, CERD, A/52/18 (1997) 9 at para. 37.

With respect to the effective enjoyment of the rights provided for in article 5 of the Convention, concern is expressed at remaining instances of racial discrimination in the field of employment, notably the opportunities for professional promotions, in the private as well as in the public sectors, in the fields of housing and education, in the exercise of stop-and-search powers by the police, and with respect to occurrences of ill-treatment by the police.

•          The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, CERD, A/52/18 (1997) 67 at paras. 521 and 526.

Paragraph 521

Concern is expressed over the low levels of participation, in particular in secondary and higher education, of certain minorities, notably Roma children and Albanian girls, in rural areas.

Paragraph 526

The State party should continue its efforts to facilitate participation in the educational system by different ethnic minorities, in particular at the secondary and higher-educational level, and to provide for the training of teachers for minority languages in public establishments.

•          The Netherlands, CERD, A/53/18 (1998) 33 at paras. 105 and 106.

Paragraph 105

Further action should be taken to ensure and promote equal opportunity in economic and social life, in particular as regards education and employment.

Paragraph 106

Concern is expressed at the under-representation of ethnic minorities in most areas of education and, in particular, that only an estimated 2 per cent of the total student population in higher education comes from ethnic minorities. The State party should give more attention to providing students from ethnic minorities at all levels of education, as appropriate, instruction in their mother tongue.

•          Czech Republic, CERD, A/53/18 (1998) 35 at para. 123.

The marginalization of the Roma community in the field of education is noted with concern. Evidence that a disproportionately large number of Roma children are placed in special schools, leading to de facto racial segregation, and that they also have a considerably lower level of participation in secondary and higher education, raises doubts about whether article 5 of the Convention is being fully implemented.

•          Yugoslavia, CERD, A/53/18 (1998) 45 at para. 199.

Concern is expressed about continuing reports indicating that access by certain minorities to education, public information and cultural activities in their own languages is not fully guaranteed.

•          Armenia, CERD, A/53/18 (1998) 49 at paras. 225 and 227.

Paragraph 225

It is noted with concern that, according to law, teaching must be conducted in the official language and that some minority groups are therefore denied access to education in practice.

Paragraph 227

The State party should consider adopting measures to ensure that ethnic and national minorities have access to education in their own languages whenever possible.

•          Cambodia, CERD, A/53/18 (1998) 55 at para. 292.

Concern is expressed over the limited educational facilities in the villages of ethnic Vietnamese, the lack of legislation authorizing the establishment of schools for them, and the obstacles to their children learning the Khmer language.

•          Croatia, CERD, A/53/18 (1998) 59 at para. 316.

With respect to article 5 of the Convention, concern is expressed that the Croatian Law on Citizenship seems to establish different criteria for ethnic Croats, compared to other minorities in Croatia, in granting citizenship. The excessive delays in the processing of applications for citizenship, in particular those of ethnic Serbs, which have resulted in applicants losing social and educational benefits, is of concern.

•          Iraq, CERD, A/54/18 (1999) 35 at para. 348.

Concern is expressed over allegations that the non-Arab population living in the Kirkuk and Khanaquin areas, especially the Kurds, Turkmen and Assyrians, have been subjected by local authorities to measures such as forced relocation, denial of equal access to employment and educational opportunities, and limitations in the exercise of their rights linked to the ownership of real estate.

•          Uruguay, CERD, A/54/18 (1999) 41 at para. 429.

With respect to employment, education and housing, the State party should take steps to reduce present inequalities and adequately compensate affected groups and persons for earlier evictions from their houses.

•          Australia, CERD, A/55/18 (2000) 17 at para. 41.

Efforts being made to increase spending on health, housing, employment and education programmes for indigenous Australians are acknowledged. Serious concern remains about the extent of the continuing discrimination faced by indigenous Australians in the enjoyment of their economic, social and cultural rights. Serious concern remains about the extent of the dramatic inequality still experienced by an indigenous population that represents only 2.1 per cent of the total population of a highly developed industrialized State. It is recommended that the State party ensure, within the shortest time possible, that sufficient resources are allocated to eradicate these disparities.

•          Spain, CERD, A/55/18 (2000) 34 at para. 168.

While noting the positive measures taken by the State party to ensure that the Roma are not discriminated against, concern is expressed over the high drop-out rates and registered absences of Roma children in primary schools, as well as the low number of Roma completing higher education.

•          Finland, CERD, A/55/18 (2000) 41 at paras. 213 and 217.

Paragraph 213

It is of concern that Roma continue to experience discrimination in the fields of housing, education and employment. The State party should take additional measures at the national and municipal levels to improve the situation of the Roma minority, with a view to preventing social exclusion and discrimination against them.

Paragraph 217

It is noted with concern that immigrants, refugees and minorities, in particular Roma, have higher rates of unemployment, have difficulties in gaining access to housing and social services and have higher rates of school drop-out. The State party should take all necessary measures to alleviate the situation of immigrants, refugees and minorities, in particular Roma, at the national and municipal levels, especially with respect to housing, employment and education.

•          Slovenia, CERD, A/55/18 (2000) 45 at para. 244.

It is noted that different minority groups are provided by law with different protective measures in different areas of daily life, such as political representation, access to media, education and culture. Minority groups such as Croats, Serbs, Bosnians and Roma do not enjoy the same level of protection as the Italian and Hungarian minorities. In this connection, it is recommended that the State party, in accordance with article 2 of the Convention, ensure that persons or groups of persons belonging to other minority groups are not discriminated against.

•          Slovakia, CERD, A/55/18 (2000) 47 at para. 262.

Despite school education being compulsory, a disproportionately large number of Roma children are not enrolled in schools, have high drop-out rates, do not complete higher education, or are segregated and placed in schools for mentally disabled children. It is recommended that the State party address the various factors responsible for the low level of education among the Romas with a view to improving enrolment and continue efforts to develop and expand strategies to facilitate the integration of minority pupils into mainstream education.

•          Czech Republic, CERD, A/55/18 (2000) 50 at paras. 279, 280 and 283.

Paragraph 279

While the measures taken by the State party for the promotion and the protection of the human rights of the Roma minority are welcomed, concern remains that the Roma population continue to be subjected to discrimination in the fields of housing, education and employment.

Paragraph 280

With regard to article 3 of the Convention, concern is expressed about the existing situations of de facto segregation in the areas of housing and education of the Roma population. In particular, concern is expressed at measures taken by some local authorities leading to segregation and at the practice of school segregation by which many Roma children are placed in special schools, offering them lesser opportunities for further study or employment. The State party should undertake effective measures to eradicate promptly practices of racial segregation, including the placement of a disproportionate number of Roma children in special schools.

Paragraph 283

The Committee reiterates its concern at the lack of criminal, civil or administrative law provisions expressly outlawing racial discrimination in education, health care, social care, the penitentiary system, as well as in the private sphere. It is recommended that the State party undertake legislative reform to safeguard the enjoyment, without any form of discrimination, by all segments of the population, of the economic, social and cultural rights listed in article 5 of the Convention. Such reform should include the provision of adequate reparation for victims of racial discrimination.

•          The Netherlands, CERD, A/55/18 (2000) 55 at para. 320.

Concern is expressed at de facto school segregation in a number of localities. It is recommended that the State party undertake further measures to reduce de facto segregation and to promote a multicultural educational system.

•          United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, CERD, A/55/18 (2000) 60 at paras. 363 and 364.

Paragraph 363

Concern is expressed regarding admission and access to schools by Roma Travellers.

Paragraph 364

The high level of unemployment among ethnic minority groups is noted with concern. Concern is expressed that there is racist harassment and bullying in schools and that ethnic minorities continue to be disproportionately excluded from schools. The State party should intensify its efforts to ensure full enjoyment by all of the rights provided in article 5 of the Convention, without discrimination, giving particular attention to the rights to employment, education, housing and health.

•          Iceland, CERD, A/56/18 (2001) 32 at para. 149.

The introduction of new curricula for nursery and primary schools, with increased attention to the role of schools in facilitating the integration of children from different cultural backgrounds without the loss of their ties to their own culture is welcomed. The emphasis on the promotion of tolerance is noted, as is the recognition of the need to provide students from different linguistic backgrounds with special education in Icelandic to address educational and employment disparities.

•          Japan, CERD, A/56/18 (2001) 34 at para. 174.

Concern is expressed about discrimination affecting the Korean minority. Though efforts are being made to remove some of the institutional obstacles for minority students from international schools, including Korean schools, to enter Japanese universities, it is of particular concern that studies in Korean are not recognised and resident Korean students receive unequal treatment with regard to access to higher education. The State party should undertake appropriate measures to eliminate discriminatory treatment of minorities, including Koreans, in this regard and to ensure access to education in minority languages in public Japanese schools.

•          Sudan, CERD, A/56/18 (2001) 40 at para. 211.

The Committee reiterates its recommendations to the State party contained in its Decision 5(54) of 19 March 1999 (A/54/18, para. 21(5)), inter alia, to implement immediately effective measures to guarantee all Sudanese, without distinction based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin, freedom of religion, opinion, expression and association; the right to security of person and protection by the State against violence or bodily harm; the right to study and communicate in a chosen language, and the right to enjoy their own culture without interference.

•          China, CERD, A/56/18 (2001) 44 at para. 245.

While recognizing efforts made which have resulted in an increased number of schools and a decrease of illiteracy in minority regions, concern remains about continuous reports of discrimination with regard to the right to education in minority regions, with particular emphasis on Tibet. The State party should urgently ensure that children in all minority areas have the right to develop knowledge about their own language and culture as well as the Chinese, and that they are guaranteed equal opportunities, particularly with regard to access to higher education.

•          Cyprus, CERD, A/56/18 (2001) 48 at paras. 269 and 272.

Paragraph 269

Concern is expressed at the lack of legal provisions expressly outlawing racial discrimination by private persons in education and employment, and it is recommended that the State party give attention to the development of such legislation.

Paragraph 272

Measures taken by the State party to combat discrimination in the field of education, culture and information should be intensified.

•          Egypt, CERD, A/56/18 (2001) 50 at para. 288.

Concern is expressed at the nationality law, which prevents an Egyptian mother married to a foreigner from passing on her nationality to her children. It is also of concern that children born to Egyptian mothers and foreign fathers are faced with discrimination in the field of education. The promise of the State party to revise the nationality law, which discriminates against children born to Egyptian women married to non-nationals, so as to bring it into line with the provisions of the Convention, is noted.

•          United States of America, CERD, A/56/18 (2001) 64 at para. 398.

While noting the numerous laws, institutions and measures designed to eradicate racial discrimination affecting the equal enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights, concern is expressed about persistent disparities in the enjoyment of, in particular, the right to adequate housing, equal opportunities for education and employment, and access to public and private health care. The State party should take all appropriate measures, including special measures according to article 2, paragraph 2, of the Convention, to ensure the right of everyone, without discrimination as to race, colour, or national or ethnic origin, to the enjoyment of the rights contained in article 5 of the Convention.

ICCPR

•          New Zealand, ICCPR, A/50/40 vol. I (1995) 38 at para. 182.

It is regretted that, despite improvements, Maori still experience disadvantages in access to health care, education and employment.

•          Zambia, ICCPR, A/51/40 vol. I (1996) 29 at para. 204.

The requirement to sing the national anthem and salute the flag as a condition of attending a State school, despite conscientious objection, appears to be unreasonable and is incompatible with articles 18 and 24 of the Covenant.

•          Switzerland, ICCPR, A/52/40 vol. I (1997) 19 at para. 97.

It is noted with concern that in many areas, such as access to higher education and to posts of responsibility, equal remuneration for work of equal value, and participation in household tasks and in the upbringing of children, equality between men and women has not yet been achieved in practice, particularly in the private sector.

•          The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, ICCPR, A/53/40 vol. I (1998) 55 at paras. 380 and 383.

Paragraph 380

The principle of equality between men and women is far from being implemented in practice, particularly in the spheres of employment and education, in spite of progress in some areas such as the judiciary. The activities of the Department for the Promotion of Gender Equality and other governmental initiatives to overcome deeply rooted stereotypes and traditions are noted and further measures to ensure genuine equality should be undertaken without delay.

Paragraph 383

The encouragement of minority participation in the design, organization and functioning of the educational system, in particular at the secondary and higher educational levels, should be continued, and training should continue to be provided to teachers of minority languages in public establishments.

•          United Republic of Tanzania, ICCPR, A/53/40 vol. I (1998) 57 at para. 396.

The State party should put an end to the application of personal laws which discriminate against women with respect to, inter alia: marriage, divorce, land and inheritance; discriminatory customary attitudes that discourage women from pursuing their full educational rights and that result in a tendency for women to lack the qualifications needed to reach higher levels of achievement in all aspects of activity, such as the senior judiciary; and the under-representation of women in political spheres. Action should be taken to increase the number of girls' schools, persuasion should be exerted on society to insist on girls' attendance at school, and support should be given to young women who wish to pursue higher education.

•          Armenia, ICCPR, A/54/40 vol. I (1999) 29 at para. 118.

The Committee is concerned about the State party's position that it is not possible to ensure that small national minorities have access to educational facilities in their languages of origin.

•          Japan, ICCPR, A/54/40 vol. I (1999) 36 at paras. 155-157.

Paragraph 155

Instances of discrimination against members of the Japanese-Korean minority who are not Japanese citizens, including the non-recognition of Korean schools, are of concern. Protection under article 27 may not be restricted to citizens.

Paragraph 156

The Committee is concerned about the discrimination against members of the Ainu indigenous minority in regard to language and higher education, as well as about non-recognition of their land rights.

Paragraph 157

Measures should be taken to put an end to the discrimination that persists vis-à-vis members of the Buraku minority with regard to education, income and the system of effective remedies.

•          Cambodia, ICCPR, A/54/40 vol. I (1999) 57 at para. 309.

The State party should ensure greater access to education by women and girls and the full and equal participation of women in political life.

•          Morocco, ICCPR, A/55/40 vol. I (2000) 24 at paras. 98 and 99.

Paragraph 98

A high rate of female illiteracy underlines the lack of equal opportunity for women in all aspects of society. The extent of discrimination against Moroccan women in: education; employment; public life; and criminal and civil laws, including laws dealing with inheritance, marriage, divorce and family relations, including the questions of polygamy, repudiation of marriage, grounds for divorce, age of marriage and restrictions on marriage by Muslim women to non-Muslims, are matters of concern. The constitutional guarantees of women's equality extend only to political rights.

Paragraph 99

Efforts should be intensified to overcome illiteracy, lack of education and all forms of discrimination against women, to implement fully the guarantee of equality contained in the Covenant (and in particular articles 2, paragraph 1, 3, 23, 25 and 26), and to ensure the equal enjoyment by women of all rights and freedoms.

•          Cameroon, ICCPR, A/55/40 vol. I (2000) 36 at paras. 195 and 196.

Paragraph 195

A high rate of illiteracy among women, unequal educational and employment opportunities for women and the ability of husbands to seek a court order to prevent wives from engaging in certain occupations are matters of concern.

Paragraph 196

The State party should ensure the equality of women and men, both in education and employment, particularly in employment of the woman's choice. Women should receive equal pay for work of equal value.

•          Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (China), ICCPR, A/55/40 vol. I (2000) 40 at para. 249.

Educational systems should not discriminate against girls in selection for secondary schools.

•          Kyrgyzstan, ICCPR, A/55/40 vol. I (2000) 57 at para. 402.

The State party is urged to take all necessary measures to sensitize the population, so as to improve the condition of women by eradicating all traditional and stereotypical attitudes that deny women equality in education, the workplace, public life, and in access to public service. In particular, measures against discrimination should be enforced and positive measures taken to further the education of women at all levels.

•          Australia, ICCPR, A/55/40 vol. I (2000) 71 at para. 505.

It is noted with satisfaction that the status of women in Australian society has improved considerably during the reporting period, particularly in public service, in the general workforce and in academic enrolment, although equality has yet to be achieved in many sectors.

•          Czech Republic, ICCPR, A/56/40 vol. I (2001) 83 at para. 83(9).

It is of particular concern that a disproportionate number of Roma children are assigned to special schools designed for mentally disabled children, which would seem to indicate the use of stereotypes in the placement decisions in contravention of article 26 of the Covenant and which make it difficult, if not impossible, to secure admission to secondary schools (art. 26). Immediate and decisive steps should be taken to eradicate the segregation of Roma children in the educational system by ensuring that placement in schools is carried out on an individual basis and is not influenced by the child’s ethnic group. Where needed, the State party should also provide special training to Roma and other minority children to secure, through positive measures, their right to education.

ICESCR

•          Kenya, ICESCR, E/1994/23 (1993) 24 at para. 84.

Concern is expressed over the low school attendance of children in the poorest areas of the country and in nomadic communities. It is observed that the obligation of States parties to the Covenant to ensure that "primary education shall be compulsory and available free to all" applies in all situations, including those in which local communities are unable to furnish buildings, or individuals are unable to afford any costs associated with attendance at school. Attention is drawn to the obligation contained in article 14 of the Covenant, which requires, in cases where free compulsory education has not been assured, State parties to "work out and adopt a detailed plan of action for the progressive implementation, within a reasonable number of years" of the relevant right. The significant gender disparities and regional differences with regard to access to education, the significant difference in quality between the government secondary schools and the Harambee or community schools, as well as the difficulties encountered through the introduction of the new 8-4-4 system of education are also regretted.

•          Islamic Republic of Iran, ICESCR, E/1994/23 (1993) 32 at paras. 126, 127 and 129.

Paragraph 126

Concerns are expressed over the situation of certain minority groups. Issues which have not been satisfactorily answered in the course of the present session include: discrimination on religious grounds in the educational system; insufficiency of the education offered to the children belonging to the Kurdish minority; prohibition of the admission to university of Baha'is; restriction on freedom of debate and choice in the university institutions; and the situation of the Kurds and the disparities that exist between the different ethnic and economic groups in the enjoyment of their rights to education, to work, to travel, to housing and to the enjoyment of cultural activities.

Paragraph 127

Concern is expressed about the non-performance of the Government’s obligation under article 3 of the Covenant, under which the States parties undertake to ensure the equality of men and women to the enjoyment of all economic, social and cultural rights set forth in the Covenant. In that connection it is found that the situations in which women are: not permitted to study engineering, agriculture, mining or metallurgy or to become magistrates; excluded from a very large number of specific subjects at university level; and need their husbands' permission to work or travel abroad, are incompatible with the obligations undertaken by the State party under the Covenant.

Paragraph 129

The State party is invited to undertake necessary steps, both legislative and practical, in order to ensure that the rights enunciated in the Covenant are capable of being exercised without discrimination of any kind as to race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, especially in the case of ethnic or religious minorities. It is noted that the obligation to ensure equal opportunity for women warrants particular attention, especially in relation to the right to work, family-related rights and the right to education.

•          Australia, ICESCR, E/1994/23 (1993) 36 at para. 160.

Legislative efforts should be undertaken to eliminate remaining obstacles in the equitable access to educational establishments.

•          Germany, ICESCR, E/1994/23 (1993) 49 at paras. 250 and 251.

Paragraph 250

Concern is expressed over the disparity, which appears to exist, in Germany between men and women with regard to educational achievements and the participation of women in all levels of education and professional careers, despite the efforts made by the German authorities.

Paragraph 251

Positive action should be taken by the German authorities to guarantee ideologiocal pluralism in education and equality of opportunity for men and women in that field, in accordance with the relevant provisions of the International Covenants on Human Rights.

•          Romania, ICESCR, E/1995/22 (1994) 26 at paras. 94 and 97.

Paragraph 94

The realization of the right to education and of the right to take part in cultural life by one of the largest minorities in Romania, namely the Gypsy minority, is of particular concern. That group continues to suffer many forms of unofficial discrimination, which the Government is often unable to prevent or is unwilling to redress. Gypsies continue to face discrimination in workplaces and schools. Greater efforts should be made to accommodate their specific cultural and other needs in relation to these matters. It is of concern that, since the Revolution of 1989, no appreciable improvement has occurred in their situation, and that direct and indirect discrimination appears to continue, especially at the local level.

Paragraph 97

The State party should take vigorous steps to ensure that the right to education and to take part in cultural life is guaranteed to the members of the Gypsy minority in full accordance with the provisions of articles 2 (2), 13 and 15 of the Covenant. The Government should adopt an active non-discrimination policy with respect to this minority, encourage their participation in cultural life, and assure proper participation in educational activities by children belonging to that group.

•          Morocco, ICESCR, E/1995/22 (1994) 28 at para. 124.

More efforts should be made in the area of education, particularly in the less favoured rural areas, and an effort should also be made in the direction of reducing the apparent disparities between the rates of school attendance of boys and girls.

•          Iraq, ICESCR, E/1995/22 (1994) 32 at para. 133.

The fundamental importance of according equal priority to the education of women, including with regard to the eradication of illiteracy, is emphasized.

•          United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, ICESCR, E/1995/22 (1994) 52 at para. 275.

The situation of disadvantaged groups in the education system is of particular concern. The grave disparities which appear to prevail in the level of education, depending on the social origin of the pupil, are specifically noted. Regional differences in the quality of the education provided to children are also of concern.

•          Republic of Korea, ICESCR, E/1996/22 (1995) 24 at paras. 73 and 81.

Paragraph 73

In all areas of life women suffer from discriminatory practices due to many factors, including long-standing cultural prejudice. In education, the disparities between the percentages of boys and girls in second- and third-level institutions are disturbing. In this regard, the lack of access to and the high cost of secondary and higher education contribute to the low rate of female participation.

Paragraph 81

In order to deal with discrimination against women, it is necessary to allocate resources to carry out a range of initiatives in the fields, inter alia, of juvenile and adult education, enhanced job opportunities, law reform and the administration of justice. Programmes should be introduced with a view to redress the imbalances in the status of women in society.

•          Spain, ICESCR, E/1997/22 (1996) 27 at paras. 100 and 107.

Paragraph 100

It is noted with concern that, despite the new legislative provisions in force, discrimination against women continues with regard to the right to equal treatment at work, the right to equal pay and access to education.

Paragraph 107

The Spanish authorities should continue their efforts to ensure effective equality between men and women, in particular with regard to access to education and jobs and equal pay for equal work.

•          Guinea, ICESCR, E/1997/22 (1996) 39 at para. 208.

Illiteracy persists, and it is regretted that the Guinean Government has not given enough priority in the structural adjustment agreement to schooling and education. It is necessary to give children the right to schooling and training that will enable them to be a part of the socio-economic fabric, which is still in great need of suitably trained people to deal with underdevelopment. It is noted that discrimination against women is on the rise, which is apparent from the adult illiteracy rate, access to education and the school drop-out rate among girls. Furthermore, according to information received, the school-attendance rate remains low, primary schools are overcrowded and the principle of free primary education guaranteed by law is not always applied. The Government is also apparently unwilling to increase the education budget in order to deal with the serious shortage of teachers.

•          United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (Hong Kong), ICESCR, E/1997/22 (1996) 58 at para. 352.

It is noted with concern that, while the Hong Kong Government has adopted an educational policy in relation to children of immigrant families from China, it has not made sufficient efforts to ensure school placements for these children and protect them from discrimination.

•          The Netherlands, ICESCR, E/1999/22 (1998) 37 at paras. 185 and 193.

Paragraph 185

The consequences of the Tuition Fees Act, which have led to a constant increase in the cost of education, are of concern. Such increases are contrary to the principle of equality of opportunities between the children of rich families and children of poor families.

Paragraph 193

Appropriate steps should be taken to alleviate or eliminate the adverse effects of the Tuition Fees Act.

•          Israel, ICESCR, E/1999/22 (1998) 43 at paras. 236, 255 and 269.

Paragraph 236

It is of concern that excessive emphasis upon the State as a "Jewish State" encourages discrimination and accords a second-class status to its non-Jewish citizens. It is noted with concern that the Government of Israel does not accord equal rights to its Arab citizens, although they comprise over 19 per cent of the total population. This discriminatory attitude is apparent in the lower standard of living of Israeli Arabs as a result, inter alia, of lack of access to housing, water, electricity and health care and their lower level of education.

Paragraph 255

The large gaps within the Israeli educational system are noted with regret. Drop-out rates are higher and eligibility for matriculation certificates is lower within certain segments of society namely, Arabs and Jews in poor neighbourhoods and in development towns, where many of the residents are Jews of Asian and African origin, including Ethiopian Jews. The gap in educational expenditure per capita for the Arab sector, which is substantially less than for the Jewish sector, is of concern.

Paragraph 269

Measures should be undertaken to address the inequalities in the educational system at the secondary and university levels, particularly in terms of budget allocations. A study should be undertaken on the viability of establishing an Arab university within Israel for the purpose of ensuring equal opportunities and access to higher education in the respective official languages.

•          Switzerland, ICESCR, E/1999/22 (1998) 59 at paras. 355, 356 and 371.

Paragraph 355

It is noted with concern that in many areas, such as access to higher education, access to posts of responsibility and equal remuneration for work of equal value, equality between men and women has not yet been achieved in practice.

Paragraph 356

The relatively high proportion of women in lower-paid jobs and among part-time and "on-call" workers, and also the comparatively low proportion of women in higher education are regretted.

Paragraph 371

The State party should play a more active role in promoting equal access to higher education for women, immigrants and ethnic minorities.

•          Canada, ICESCR, E/1999/22 (1998) 63 at paras. 414 and 424.

Paragraph 414

It is of concern that loan programmes for post-secondary education are available only to Canadian citizens and permanent residents and that recognized refugees who do not have permanent residence status, as well as asylum seekers, are ineligible for these loan programmes. It is also of concern that tuition fees for university education in Canada have dramatically increased in the past few years, making it very difficult for those in need to attend university in the absence of a loan or grant. A further subject of concern is the significant increase in the average student debt on graduation.

Paragraph 424

The Government should develop and expand adequate programmes to address the financial obstacles to post-secondary education for low-income students, without any discrimination on the basis of citizenship status.

•          Ireland, ICESCR, E/2000/22 (1999) 33 at para. 142.

It is noted with regret that, despite measures adopted by the State party, the traveller community and the disabled are still discriminated against in various respects, such as employment, education and housing.

•          Bulgaria, ICESCR, E/2000/22 (1999) 46 at para. 223.

The discrimination against the Roma minority in many aspects of life, including education, work, social benefits and access to land is deplored. The high rate of unemployment among the Roma minority and the poor quality of education afforded to this group are matters of concern.

•          Cameroon, ICESCR, E/2000/22 (1999) 56 at paras. 343 and 347.

Paragraph 343

The high level of illiteracy still existing in the State party is of concern, as is the cultural preference given to the education of male children. This is reflected in the higher illiteracy rate of women, which is 49.9 per cent compared to 30 per cent for men.

Paragraph 347

The Government is urged to prohibit customary practices which violate the rights of women and to take active measures to combat such practices and beliefs by all means, including educational programmes. Government action should focus, in particular, on the elimination of the practices of polygamy, forced marriages and female genital mutilation, and the bias in favour of the education of boys.

•          Italy, ICESCR, E/2001/22 (2000) 34 at para. 141.

With regard to the public funding of private schools, the State party is reminded that any such funding must be without discrimination on any of the prohibited grounds.

•          Egypt, ICESCR, E/2001/22 (2000) 38 at paras. 166 and 182.

Paragraph 166

Despite the achievements of Egypt in the field of education, inequality of access to education between boys and girls, high drop-out rates for boys and high illiteracy rates among adults, particularly women, persist.

Paragraph 182

The State party is urged to undertake measures to address the economic, social and cultural factors that are the root causes of the problem of inequality of access to education, high drop-out rates for boys and high illiteracy rates among adults, in particular women.

•          Jordan, ICESCR, E/2001/22 (2000) 49 at para. 227.

The State party's commitment towards improving access to education, especially for girls, is welcomed.

•          Sudan, ICESCR, E/2001/22 (2000) 57 at para. 299.

The State party's efforts in the field of education are welcomed, in particular the establishment of 16 new universities, located in each department of the country, and the increased enrolment of women at all levels of education.

•          Kyrgyzstan, ICESCR, E/2001/22 (2000) 62 at para. 351.

In regards to education, concern is expressed about the phenomenon of children dropping out of school to provide for their families. The situation of girls is particularly alarming, as their access to education is being curtailed by a revival of the tradition of early marriage, and a decrease in the prestige of having a formal education.

•          Portugal, ICESCR, E/2001/22 (2000) 70 at para. 421.

The State party is urged to allow foreign workers to enrol in the vocational guidance and training courses to which Portuguese workers are entitled.

•          Finland, ICESCR, E/2001/22 (2000) 73 at para. 459.

The State party is called upon to take special care in ensuring the equality of standards in education for all in accordance with article 13 of the Covenant and the Committee's General Comments Nos. 11 and 13.

•          Morocco, ICESCR, E/2001/22 (2000) 82 at para. 543.

The low level of primary school attendance is of deep concern. Currently less than 50 per cent of children of both sexes are being regularly educated. In addition, access of young girls to education is considerably more limited, particularly in the rural areas, which accounts for the fact that the adult illiteracy rate is 65 per cent for women, as against 40 per cent for men.

•          Venezuela, ICESCR, E/2002/22 (2001) 29 at para. 85.

The discrimination against indigenous people is deplored, particularly with regard to access to landownership, housing, health services and sanitation, education, work and adequate nutrition.

•          Honduras, ICESCR, E/2002/22 (2001) 33 at para. 140.

The economic, social and cultural rights of indigenous populations as a distinct minority group should be recognised and more effective protection against discrimination, especially in the fields of employment, health and education, should be ensured.

•          Republic of Korea, ICESCR, E/2002/22 (2001) 45 at paras. 238 and 252.

Paragraph 238

The predominance of private institutions in higher education is noted with concern. This is a fact detrimental to the lower income groups. Furthermore, over two-thirds of the students in higher education are males, which is contrary to the principle of gender equality.

Paragraph 252

A plan should be established to strengthen the public education system in conformity with article 13 of the Covenant and General Comment Number 13 and in accordance with the State party's high level of economic development. The plan should include the following elements: a reasonable timetable for specific actions for the introduction of free and compulsory secondary education; a re-examination of the functions and quality of the public education system relative to private education, with a view to strengthening the former and easing the burden on low-income groups imposed by the latter; a study of accessibility of schools at all levels, including tertiary education, and specific actions to be taken to ensure equal access by all sectors of society; and a reassessment of the curricula at all levels of instruction directed at promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.

•          Bolivia, ICESCR, E/2002/22 (2001) 52 at para. 270.

Notwithstanding the impressive number of legal instruments and policies adopted by the State party to ensure gender equality, concern is expressed about the de facto inequality between men and women, which is exacerbated by the perpetuation of traditional prejudices and social conditions, such as discrimination in education of the girl child in rural areas. Such discrimination is particularly reflected in the low level of representation of women in public service, the high female illiteracy rate, the unequal wages for work of equal value, and the high proportion of women working under inadequate conditions in the informal sector or as domestic workers.

•          Togo, ICESCR, E/2002/22 (2001) 57 at paras. 315 and 318.

Paragraph 315

The position of women in Togolese society is of concern. Despite a constitutional declaration of equality under the law, women continue to experience wide-spread discrimination, especially in relation to the rights to education, to social security (in particular pension benefits), family protection (particularly family law regulation of inheritance), and in relation to traditional law practices.

Paragraph 318

Particular concern is expressed with regard to the education of children. A pattern of discrimination against children, especially girls, is prevalent in the State party. According to the 2000 UNDP Human Development Report, only 70.2% of primary school age girls attend primary school, which is 74% of the male ratio. Only 40.0% of the secondary school age girls attend secondary school, which is 52% of the male ratio. At the university level, women's enrolment constitutes only 21% of the ratio for male tertiary education enrolment. This inequality is also reflected in the difference in literacy rates, which is 38.4% for adult women, only 53% of the male rate.

•          Senegal, ICESCR, E/2002/22 (2001) 61 at paras. 359 and 380.

Paragraph 359

There is concern that children of asylum-seekers who have not yet been granted refugee status cannot enrol in school unless they are able to pay tuition fees.

Paragraph 380

The State party is urged to expedite the consideration of the applications of asylum-seekers and to provide them with basic social services, including hospital care and free education for their children.

•          Syrian Arab Republic, ICESCR, E/2002/22 (2001) 67 at paras. 399, 420 and 434.

Paragraph 399

The measures taken pursuant to the Dakar Framework for Action, adopted at the World Education Forum in April 2000 to elaborate on a National Education For All Plan, are welcomed.

Paragraph 420

Effective measures should be taken to combat discrimination in practice against minority groups, in particular the Kurds. Such measures should be aimed especially at improving birth registration and school attendance and allowing for the use of their languages and other expressions of their culture.

Paragraph 434

The State party is urged to implement its comprehensive National Education For All Plan, as anticipated by paragraph 16 of the Dakar Framework for Action, taking into account General Comments No. 11 (1999) on plans of action for primary education (art. 14 of the Covenant) and No. 13 (1999) on the right to education (art. 13 of the Covenant) and General Comment No. 1 (2001) of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on the aims of education (art. 29, para. 1, of the Convention on the Rights of the Child). The State party is also urged to ratify the Convention against Discrimination in Education adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO in 1960.

See also:

•          Senegal, ICESCR, E/2002/22 (2001) 61 at para. 385.

•          Panama, ICESCR, E/2002/22 (2001) 73 at para. 478.

•          Panama, ICESCR, E/2002/22 (2001) 73 at paras. 450 and 466.

Paragraph 450

Notwithstanding the absence of legal discrimination and the rights granted to indigenous communities by the Constitution, there is deep concern about the persisting disadvantage faced in practice by members of indigenous communities and, in particular, about the marked disparities in the levels of poverty, literacy, access to water, employment, health, education and other basic social services.

Paragraph 466

The State party should consider ratifying the ILO Convention No. 169 (1989) concerning indigenous and tribal peoples in independent countries. Particular attention should be paid to improving poverty and literacy rates and access to water, employment, health, education and other basic social services for indigenous peoples.

•          Ukraine, ICESCR, E/2002/22 (2001) 78 at para. 513.

All necessary measures should be taken to allocate the required resources to implement effectively the Law on Education adopted in 1991. The State party should ensure that General Comments No. 11 (1999) on plans of action for primary education (art. 14 of the Covenant) and No. 13 (1999) on the right to education (art. 13 of the Covenant), as well as General Comment No. 1 (2001) of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on the aims of education (art. 29, para. 1, of the Convention on the Rights of the Child), are duly taken into consideration when elaborating its educational policies. It is also recommended that the State party promote the participation of parents and communities, especially ethnic minorities, in school governance in order to improve enrolment rates and monitor the quality of education.

•          Nepal, ICESCR, E/2002/22 (2001) 83 at para. 562.

Legislation and programmes should be effectively enforced in order to put an end to discrimination, in particular with regard to access to housing, work and education, against persons belonging to the Dalits and the liberated Kamaiyas.

•          Japan, ICESCR, E/2002/22 (2001) 90 at paras. 592, 611 and 637-639.

Paragraph 592

The persisting de jure and de facto discrimination against minority groups in Japanese society is of concern, particularly, against the Buraku and Okinawa communities, the indigenous Ainu people and people of Korean descent, especially in the fields of employment, housing and education.

Paragraph 611

Concern is expressed that there are very limited possibilities for children of minorities to enjoy education in their own language and about their own culture in public schools. It is also of concern that minority schools, such as Korean schools, are not officially recognized, even when they adhere to the national education curriculum, and therefore neither receive central government subsidies nor are able to provide qualification for university entrance examinations.

Paragraph 637

A comprehensive review of the educational system should be undertaken, taking into consideration General Comments No. 11 (1999) on plans of education for primary education (art. 14 of the Covenant), and No. 13 (1999) on the right to education (art. 13 of the Covenant), as well as General Comment No. 1 (2001) on the aims of education (art. 29, para. 1, of the Convention on the Rights of the Child) . In particular, the review should focus on the frequent excessively competitive and stressful nature of all levels of education, which results in school absence, illness, and even suicide by students.

Paragraph 638

School textbooks and other teaching materials should present issues in a fair and balanced manner which reflects the aims and objectives of education, as set out in article 13 (1) of the Covenant, General Comment No. 13 and General Comment No. 1.

Paragraph 639

Mother-tongue instruction should be introduced in the official curricula of public schools enrolling a significant number of pupils belonging to linguistic minorities. Minority schools should be officially recognized, in particular Korean schools, when they comply with the national education curriculum. Consequently subsidies and other financial assistance should be made available to these schools and their school leaving certificates should be recognized as university entrance examination qualifications.

CEDAW

•          Mauritius, CEDAW, A/50/38 (1995) 44 at para. 213.

Non-academic training such as embroidery, industrial sewing, etc., conducted as a positive discrimination programme would only contribute to keeping women to the feminized sector of the economy.

•          Tunisia, CEDAW, A/50/38 (1995) 52 at paras. 267 and 276.

Paragraph 267

The high rate of illiteracy among women is of concern, since access to education is fundamental to the empowerment of women. Equally important is the fact that the number of school drop-outs among girls is high.

Paragraph 276

Ways and means should be envisaged to encourage women and girls to enrol in science fields.

•          Uganda, CEDAW, A/50/38 (1995) 61 at para. 342.

Pre-school facilities should be made accessible and affordable, particularly for low-means families.

•          Paraguay, CEDAW, A/51/38 (1996) 16 at para. 130.

The State party should strengthen and broaden its initiatives to extend bilingual education to all citizens, in particular women, and to combat the social, economic and cultural factors causing the high drop-out and illiteracy rates among women.

•          Ethiopia, CEDAW, A/51/38 (1996) 19 at para. 158.

Measures, including temporary special measures and programmes, must be adopted to give girls and women equal access to high-quality education and training.

•          Slovenia, CEDAW, A/52/38/Rev.1 part I (1997) 15 at paras. 103, 104, 113 and 114.

Paragraph 103

The clustering of female students in certain disciplines, at both schools and universities, which do not provide optimum employment opportunities, is of concern.

Paragraph 104

Concern is expressed over the fact that less than 30 per cent of children under three years of age and slightly more than half of all children between three and six are in formal day care, and that the remaining children, while cared for by family members and other private individuals, might miss out on educational and social opportunities offered in formal day-care institutions.

Paragraph 113

Systematic efforts should be made to ensure that women students are encouraged to enter diverse disciplines so as to overcome the clustering of female students in certain disciplines at schools and universities. Such measures could include special counselling and gender-specific temporary measures with numerical goals and timetables. Women's studies should also be formally established at universities and made part of the school curriculum. The Government should also review its gender-neutral educational framework and develop positive measures to counteract hidden stereotypical educational messages and practices.

Paragraph 114

The creation of more formal and institutionalized child-care establishments for children under three years of age, as well as for those from three to six years of age, is recommended.

•          Turkey, CEDAW, A/52/38/Rev.1 part I (1997) 24 at para. 201.

Continuing support should be given to female students in order to increase the number of female university graduates and their participation in non-traditional fields.

•          Namibia, CEDAW, A/52/38/Rev.1 part II (1997) 82 at paras. 106 and 108.

Paragraph 106

The low level of participation of women in higher education and the high drop-out rate of girls from the formal education system is noted with serious concern.

Paragraph 108

Concern is expressed about pregnant teenage women who are punished by expulsion from school.

•          Israel, CEDAW, A/52/38/Rev.1 part II (1997) 87 at paras. 161 and 176.

Paragraph 161

Concern is expressed over the fact that non-Jewish women have worse living conditions than Jewish women. They receive a lower level of education, participate less in the government service and occupy a limited number of decision-making posts.

Paragraph 176

Measures should be intensified to guarantee the exercise of human rights by non-Jewish women, including those living in the rural areas, particularly in relation to health, education and employment. Special measures should be taken to close the gap between Arab and Jewish schools and address the higher drop-out rates of Arab and Bedouin girls. Adequate resources should be allocated to school facilities and education opportunities, including scholarships.

•          Antigua and Barbuda, CEDAW, A/52/38/Rev.1 part II (1997) 97 at para. 254.

The continuing selection by female students of stereotypical subjects and the greater exposure of girls within the school system to domestic skills and boys to technical skills are matters of concern.

•          Azerbaijan, CEDAW, A/53/38/Rev.1 part I (1998) 7 at para. 67.

The situation of women in rural areas, in particular with regard to basic health protection and education, as well as social protection, is a concern.

•          Czech Republic, CEDAW, A/53/38/Rev.1 part I (1998) 16 at paras. 193 and 194.

Paragraph 193

The policy of creating “household management” schools, which, although not formally sex segregated, basically cater to female students and train them for traditional stereotypical roles, is viewed as promoting gender stereotyping. The same applies with regard to the practice of some schools of admitting only boys because of their “different physical abilities.” In stressing the importance of encouraging girls and boys to choose non-traditional fields of study in order to eliminate discrimination against women, heightened concern is expressed about such schools.

Paragraph 194

Concern is expressed over the fact that the Government appeared reluctant to direct girls to scientific and technological fields of study.

•          Indonesia, CEDAW, A/53/38/Rev.1 part I (1998) 24 at para. 291.

Women’s low rates of participation in education, and their high level of illiteracy, especially in the rural areas, are of concern. Education is a basic human right and, while the State party has made some efforts to facilitate the education of poor but gifted children, concern is expressed over the access to education of all children, including those from minority groups.

•          Mexico, CEDAW, A/53/38/Rev.1 part I (1998) 32 at para. 403.

Efforts should be continued to reduce poverty among rural women, particularly indigenous women, and to work together with non-governmental organizations, making special efforts to promote education, employment and health programmes conducive to the integration of women into the development process, both as beneficiaries and as protagonists.

•          Slovakia, CEDAW, A/53/38/Rev.1 part II (1998) 55 at para. 85.

The establishment of and increase in “household management schools,” which cater to female students and train them for traditional roles, thus promoting gender stereotyping, is of concern.

•          Panama, CEDAW, A/53/38/Rev.1 part II (1998) 64 at para. 199.

Concern is expressed at the fact that 53 per cent of the female population is illiterate, the majority of whom are indigenous women. The persistence of gender stereotypes, which results in a large number of adolescent girls terminating their education at an early age to marry or to undertake domestic work is also of concern.

•          Peru, CEDAW, A/53/38/Rev.1 part II (1998) 72 at paras. 329-331.

Paragraph 329

The vital importance of education in improving the situation of women is emphasized. The high drop-out rate among girls, particularly in poor urban areas and in rural and indigenous areas, is of concern.

Paragraph 330

Programmes should be undertaken to curb and reverse that trend and, where such programmes exist, they should be made more systematic.

Paragraph 331

Concern is expressed over the fact that illiteracy rates among women are very high. The importance of focussing on educating women is stressed, so that they can exercise their rights as citizens.

•          Algeria, CEDAW, A/54/38/Rev.1 part I (1999) 12 at para. 85.

Noting the significant progress that has been made in regard to women’s education and the enrolment of girls in schools in rural and urban areas, it is of concern that the reform of the Algerian educational system has not been completed.

•          China (Hong Kong), CEDAW, A/54/38/Rev.1 part I (1999) 26 at paras. 295 and 330.

Paragraph 295

The Government should adopt a specific time frame, with budgetary and resource allocation, for the achievement of universal literacy and primary education. It should also abolish official and unofficial school fees, which often result in the exclusion of girls from enjoying their right to education, particularly in poor rural areas. Special measures and incentives should be introduced to ensure that girls are able to utilize fully access to primary education, and are given opportunities for secondary and higher education and vocational training. Likewise, the Government is urged to revise school textbooks and curricula to eliminate gender stereotypes and to include the achievement of gender equality as a societal goal in its education policy.

Paragraph 330

The adoption of temporary special measures aimed at increasing de facto equality between women and men is recommended to increase the number of women in non-traditional areas of education, especially in science, technology and engineering, and to promote women from junior and auxiliary positions in teaching and academia to senior positions. The Government is urged to address the perpetuation of gender stereotypes and to allocate adequate resources for gender studies programmes.

•          Colombia, CEDAW, A/54/38/Rev.1 part I (1999) 33 at para. 386.

Regulations, programmes and other measures, including career counselling, should be put in place to prevent girls and young women from dropping out of school in order to reverse the trend of high female drop-out rates. The introduction of vocational programmes to promote the access of women and men to all careers is also recommended.

•          Belize, CEDAW, A/54/38/Rev.1 part II (1999) 49 at paras. 52 and 53.

Paragraph 52

The consequences of the Church-State system of education on girls’ and young women’s right to education are a serious concern. In this regard, the concern is that schools are free to expel girls from school because of pregnancy, and only a few secondary schools allow girls to continue their education after pregnancy. This violates not only the Convention but also the Constitution of Belize. That under the same system, schools are allowed to dismiss unwed teachers who become pregnant is a further concern. This is also in violation of the Convention.

Paragraph 53

The Government is urged to place the highest priority on eliminating discrimination against women and girls in education because of pregnancy, through both legislative provisions and adequate policy measures.

•          Chile, CEDAW, A/54/38/Rev.1 part II (1999) 64 at para. 227.

The Government is urged to make all efforts to ensure the passage of a law explicitly prohibiting adolescent girls from being expelled from private and public schools because of pregnancy.

•          India, CEDAW, A/55/38 part I (2000) 7 at paras. 64, 65 and 75.

Paragraph 64

The fundamental right to education under the Constitution and recognized by the Supreme Court has not been realized by providing girls with access to primary and secondary education. Budgetary allocation for education is still far below India’s commitment with regard to the Beijing Platform for Action.

Paragraph 65

The Government is urged to take affirmative action, set a time-frame and provide adequate resources for primary and secondary education so as to give girls equal access to education and eradicate adult illiteracy among women. The Government should make primary and secondary education compulsory by introducing and enforcing relevant regulations.

Paragraph 75

The Government is urged introduce affirmative action programmes in such areas as education, employment and health so as to provide life chances to Dalit women and girls and create an environment conducive to their progress. The Government is called upon to set a time-frame for those interventions.

•          Myanmar, CEDAW, A/55/38 part I (2000) 12 at paras. 125 and 126.

Paragraph 125

The restricted admission of women to certain courses in higher education contravenes article 10 (b) and (c) of the Convention.

Paragraph 126

The Government is urged to modify the policies on restricted admission, as the women themselves should be entitled to decide which subjects they wish to study and professions they wish to pursue.

•          Jordan, CEDAW, A/55/38 part I (2000) 16 at para. 159.

Satisfaction is expressed over the level of education that girls and women have achieved, in particular, the parity in enrolment rates in the basic and secondary cycles and the fact that the gap between women and men in university education is closing. The Government’s efforts to further reduce women’s illiteracy rate are also commended.

•          Democratic Republic of the Congo, CEDAW, A/55/38 part I (2000) 21 at paras. 223 and 224.

Paragraph 223

Deep concern remains about the low rate of school enrolment of girls, their high drop-out rate and also the high female illiteracy rate, especially in rural areas.

Paragraph 224

The Government is encouraged to step up its efforts by establishing specific programmes to reduce female illiteracy and promote the access of girls to secondary schools. The Government should also envisage the provision of free primary education.

•          Burkina Faso, CEDAW, A/55/38 part I (2000) 25 at para. 268.

It is recommended that the Government accord priority to the education of girls and women, including through seeking international assistance, to ensure and promote universal enrolment of girls and preclude drop-out. The Government is called upon to allocate more financial and human resources to the education sector, to recruit more women teachers and to ensure that school textbooks no longer carry negative images of women.

•          Luxembourg, CEDAW, A/55/38 part I (2000) 38 at para. 395.

The Government is commended for its efforts to teach equality, in particular through its project entitled “Partageons l’égalité-Glaichheet delen-Gleichheit teilen” (sharing equality), which aims at promoting equality of opportunity between girls and boys from the pre-school stage, by integrating the equality principle in the training curricula of teachers and trainers, including the development of training manuals and modules.

•          Cameroon, CEDAW, A/55/38 part II (2000) 53 at paras. 57, 58, 61 and 62.

Paragraph 57

Despite the Government’s efforts in the area of education, concern is expressed over the low rate of female literacy, the high female dropout rate, and the low rate of female enrolment in basic education.

Paragraph 58

The Government is encouraged to intensify its efforts to promote female access to basic and secondary education and to develop programmes specifically designed to reduce female illiteracy.

Paragraph 61

It is of concern that, despite the important role of rural women in Cameroon and despite the Government’s efforts to provide them with education and extension services, these women are disadvantaged and living in difficult circumstances.

Paragraph 62

The Government should pay the utmost attention to the needs of rural women and should ensure that they benefit from the policies and programmes adopted in all areas. It should also ensure that rural women are able to participate, on an equal basis, in the adoption of decisions to guarantee them access to literacy, health services, drinking water and credit.

•          Republic of Moldova, CEDAW, A/55/38 part II (2000) 56 at paras. 105 and 106.

Paragraph 105

While women’s high educational levels are noted, the predominance of women in low-level educational sectors is of concern. The lack of statistical information concerning women’s representation in various fields of teaching, and in administrative and high-level posts at all levels of education, is also of concern. Further concern is expressed about the persistence of stereotyped portrayals of women and men in curricula and teaching materials.

Paragraph 106

The Government should undertake curriculum reforms and textbook revisions addressing stereotyped images. The Government’s educational policy should include measures to encourage girls and women to seek education and training in non-traditional fields, as well as in growth areas of the economy. The Government is called upon to implement temporary special measures, in accordance with article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention, to accelerate women’s representation in educational decision-making.

•          Lithuania, CEDAW, A/55/38 part II (2000) 61 at paras. 138-141.

Paragraph 138 

The persistence of traditional stereotypes regarding the role of men and women in the family, in employment and in society, is of concern. Further concern is expressed about the lack of targeted educational programmes, mass media campaigns and temporary special measures in education, employment and politics to eliminate these stereotypes.

Paragraph 139

The Government should design and implement comprehensive programmes in education and the mass media in order to promote roles and tasks of women and men in all sectors of society.

Paragraph 140

A clear understanding of temporary special measures according to article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention and the Lithuanian Law on Equal Opportunities, as well as the reason for their application, seems to be lacking in large parts of Lithuanian society and in the government bureaucracy.

Paragraph 141

The Government should raise public awareness about the importance of temporary special measures and programmes by pointing to the positive example of Vilnius University and should encourage similar programmes in various areas, especially that of political decision-making. The Government should also introduce such special provisions in the educational field, including admission to disciplines in which one sex is under-represented, in government commissions and in public administration. Such provisions should be designed with measurable goals or quotas and time lines in order to accelerate the achievement of de facto equality between women and men in those areas.

•          Iraq, CEDAW, A/55/38 part II (2000) 66 at paras. 197 and 198.

Paragraph 197

The level of illiteracy among women, the increasing rate at which girls drop out of secondary and higher education, and the low representation of women in technical schools, are noted with concern.

Paragraph 198

The Government is called upon to eradicate illiteracy and to ensure primary and secondary education for girls by preventing school dropouts. Furthermore, educational and training opportunities should be broadened for girls and young women at the secondary and tertiary levels and in technical fields. Particular attention should be given to ensuring that girls and women have equal access to new specializations, including the opportunity to acquire skills and knowledge to participate on a basis of equality with men in the labour market and in the future reconstruction of the country.

•          Austria, CEDAW, A/55/38 part II (2000) 70 at paras. 231 and 232.

Paragraph 231

Concern is expressed over the high percentage of the female population in Austria which has no education beyond the compulsory level. The continuing gender role stereotyping in the area of education and vocational training for girls and boys is also a matter of concern.

Paragraph 232

Measures should be taken to encourage girls to continue their education beyond the compulsory level and particularly in the areas of science and technology. The Government should also introduce affirmative action to increase the appointment of women to academic posts at all levels and to integrate gender studies and feminist research in university curricula and research programmes.

•          Romania, CEDAW, A/55/38 part II (2000) 77 at paras. 310 and 311.

Paragraph 310

Concern is expressed over the high rate of illiteracy of women over 50 years of age and the extremely wide gap in illiteracy between the urban and rural populations, as well as the high dropout rates for girls at secondary level. While the number of women working in the education sector is high, it is of concern that the percentage of women in administrative and decision-making positions in this sector is low.

Paragraph 311

Measures should be taken to increase the literacy levels of older women, and to reduce the literacy gap between urban and rural women. Efforts should also be made to ensure that education, including continuing education and adult literacy programmes, are targeted to women and include training in new information and communications technologies to provide women and girls with the skills required in a knowledge-based economy.

•          Burundi, CEDAW, A/56/38 part I (2001) 7 at paras. 57 and 58.

Paragraph 57

The high prevalence of illiteracy among women and the low level of schooling of girls, especially in rural areas, are matters of concern. Education is a key to the empowerment of women, and low levels of education of women remain one of the most serious impediments to national development.

Paragraph 58

The Government is urged to continue its efforts to improve the access of girls to all levels of education and to prevent their dropping out of school. The Government is also encouraged to introduce corrective measures that address all stakeholders involved, including incentives for parents, and to consider requesting international assistance to improve women's and girls' education.

•          Maldives, CEDAW, A/56/38 part I (2001) 15 at paras. 125 and 136.

Paragraph 125

The progress achieved and reflected in a very high adult literacy rate for women, and parity among boys and girls in primary and secondary education is welcomed.

Paragraph 136

Early marriage and domestic responsibilities contribute to high dropout rates for girls. Minimum age of marriage laws and other programmes should be introduced to prevent early marriage, in line with the obligations of the Convention.

•          Uzbekistan, CEDAW, A/56/38 part I (2001) 18 at paras. 163, 180 and 181.

Paragraph 163

The Government is commended for its efforts to maintain a high level of education and for its employment policies towards women.

Paragraph 180

While noting with appreciation the high level of education among women, concern is expressed about the recent decline in the total number of women students.

Paragraph 181

Urgent measures should be taken to prevent the decline of women in higher education. Raising awareness and providing incentives to encourage young women to enter male-dominated fields of study are recommended.

See also:

•          Kazakstan, CEDAW, A/56/38 part I (2001) 10 at para. 82.

•          Finland, CEDAW, A/56/38 part I (2001) 29 at para. 298.

Efforts should be increased to eliminate stereotypes in women’s education, biased perceptions in job evaluations and pay relating to traditional areas of employment for women. In particular, efforts to encourage cross-vocational training in typical female and male-dominated areas and to address the issue of the negative impact on women of policies of time-fixed contracts are recommended.

•          Egypt, CEDAW, A/56/38 part I (2001) 33 at para. 330.

It is of concern that the Egyptian nationality law prevents an Egyptian woman from passing on her nationality to her children if her husband is not Egyptian, while Egyptian men married to non-Egyptians may do so. The hardship faced by the children of Egyptian women married to non-Egyptian men, including financial hardship with regard to education, is of particular concern. This limitation on the rights of women is inconsistent with the Convention.

•          Singapore, CEDAW, A/56/38 part II (2001) 51 at paras. 92 and 93.

Paragraph 92

The imposition of a maximum quota on the number of women medical students is of concern.

Paragraph 93

The maximum quota on the number of women medical students should be removed and childcare arrangements and flexible working hours provided, so as to encourage and enable women doctors to pursue their profession.

•          Guyana, CEDAW, A/56/38 part II (2001) 60 at para. 175.

The Government is encouraged to give full attention to the needs of rural women and Amerindian women and to ensure that they benefit from policies and programmes in all areas, in particular access to decision-making, health, education and social services.

•          The Netherlands, CEDAW, A/56/38 part II (2001) 63 at paras. 205, 207 and 214.

Paragraph 205

Despite the efforts made, there is continuing discrimination against immigrant refugee and minority women who suffer from multiple discrimination, based both on their sex and on their ethnic background, in society at large and within their communities, particularly with respect to education, employment and violence against women.

Paragraph 207

There is concern about the lack of information on the de facto situation of women of ethnic and minority communities in respect to their access to education, employment and health services.

Paragraph 214

Efforts to eliminate stereotypes relating to traditional areas of employment and education for women should be increased.

•          Viet Nam, CEDAW, A/56/38 part II (2001) 68 at paras. 248, 264 and 265.

Paragraph 248

The country’s ongoing economic transformation is considered to pose special challenges to the realization of gender equality - in particular in the areas of women’s employment and education of girls and young women - which can undermine the progress achieved in realizing equality between women and men.

Paragraph 264

Despite the efforts and the progress made with regard to primary and secondary education, concern is expressed about the high female drop-out rate from schools, and particularly higher education, in rural areas. It is noted that the increase in the rate has coincided with the transformation to a market economy, and it is of concern that the gains that have been made in regard to women’s and girls’ education may not be sustained.

Paragraph 265

Efforts to promote the access of women and girls to higher education and their retention in the system should be intensified. Incentives should be provided to parents in order to encourage them to ensure that their daughters attend school.

•          Nicaragua, CEDAW, A/56/38 part II (2001) 72 at paras. 312 and 313.

Paragraph 312

While the adoption of legislation to protect and promote women’s human rights, including domestic violence legislation and the Equal Opportunities Law, is welcomed, concern is expressed that discriminatory laws continue to exist and that there is no legislation dealing with education.

Paragraph 313

Existing legislation should be reformed and new legislation enacted to protect the equal rights of women and men in regard to education.

•          Sweden, CEDAW, A/56/38 part II (2001) 76 at paras. 342 and 343.

Paragraph 342

The existence of gender-based segregation at all levels of the educational system is of concern, including the choice by girls and boys of traditional disciplines and the attitudes of teachers that perpetuate and reinforce stereotypical gender roles.

Paragraph 343

Efforts should be strengthened to eliminate gender stereotypes in educational curricula and to consistently integrate awareness and understanding of gender equality in teacher training. Given the clear correlation between the choice of field of study and placement in the labour market, efforts towards ending gender segregation in students’ choice of field of education should be increased and both women and men encouraged to choose non-traditional fields of education.

CRC

•          Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), CRC, CRC/C/50 (1996) 17 at paras. 86, 97 and 108.

Paragraph 86

Concern is raised about the implementation of article 2 of the Convention relating to non-discrimination. The situation of Albanian-speaking children in Kosovo is a matter of grave concern, especially with regard to their health and education, as well as the degree to which this population is protected from abuse by the police. It appears that the rejection by the population of the Government’s decision to apply a uniform education system and curriculum has been followed by the summary dismissal of 18,000 teachers and other education professionals and to more than 300,000 school-aged children not attending school. The subsequent development of a parallel system of education has resulted in further detrimental effects, including the closure of schools and the harassment of teachers.

Paragraph 97

Concern is expressed that the costs of children's education may be growing beyond the reach of certain families. It is also noted that a decline in preschool education has been recorded in recent years. Reports of the progressive exclusion of teaching in languages other than Serbian, such as Bulgarian, are also disquieting.

Paragraph 108

The State party should give further consideration to the need to allocate greater resources to education and to reverse any trends in the education system which may perpetuate gender discrimination or stereotyping as well as to addressing other problems, including those relating to teaching in national languages.

•          Nepal, CRC, CRC/C/54 (1996) 25 at para. 161.

The persistent discriminatory attitudes towards girls, as reflected in the prevailing son preference, the persistence of early marriages, the notably lower school attendance of girls and their higher drop-out rate are of particular concern.

•          Guatemala, CRC, CRC/C/54 (1996) 31 at para. 209.

Deficiencies in the system of birth registration are of deep concern since the failure to register children prevents them from being recognized as persons, from having access to education and health services, and from being protected against trafficking in and illegal adoption of children.

•          Ecuador, CRC, CRC/C/80 (1998) 9 at para. 49.

The educational system and its policies should be strengthened in order to reduce gender and geographical disparities and to establish retention programmes and vocational training for drop-out students.

•          Iraq, CRC, CRC/C/80 (1998) 15 at para. 74.

All appropriate measures, including legislative measures, should be taken to ensure non-discrimination at all levels of society and to encourage equality between boys and girls. In this regard, additional measures should be taken to ensure the school enrolment of girls, especially in rural areas, and to reduce their drop-out rate, particularly during the compulsory education period.

•          Barbados, CRC, CRC/C/87 (1999) 9 at para. 46.

The growing gender bias faced by boys as shown in, among other areas, academic underachievement by boys is of concern. At the same time, the rate of girls who attempt or commit suicide is particularly high. Efforts should be increased to address discrimination arising from the socialization of boys and girls into inappropriate gender roles and the resulting determination of social attitudes concerning children based on gender.

•          Russian Federation, CRC, CRC/C/90 (1999) 18 at paras. 127 and 128.

Paragraph 127

The living conditions of ethnic minorities, especially in the north, and their access to health, educational and other social services and the growing incidence of societal discrimination against children belonging to ethnic minorities are matters of concern.

Paragraph 128

All the necessary measures should be taken to protect minority children from discrimination and to guarantee their full access to educational, health and other social services.

•          Vanuatu, CRC, CRC/C/90 (1999) 29 at paras. 154 and 156.

Paragraph 154

Insufficient efforts have been made thus far to protect the rights of children with disabilities. The necessary resources should be allocated for programmes and facilities for children with disabilities. In the light of the Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities (General Assembly resolution 48/96) and the Committee’s recommendations adopted at its day of general discussion on “The rights of children with disabilities,” the State party should develop early identification programmes to prevent disabilities, establish special education programmes for children with disabilities and further encourage their integration into the educational system as well as their inclusion in society. In this connection, technical cooperation for the training of persons working with and for children with disabilities should be sought from UNICEF and the WHO.

Paragraph 156

It is of concern that primary education is not compulsory and free for all children. The limited access to education, the low rate of enrolment of girls, the low literacy rate, the poor quality of education, the general lack of relevant learning material and other resources, and the insufficient numbers of trained/qualified teachers are also matters of concern. A study of the educational system should be undertaken with a view to: improving access to education at all levels of the system; increasing the enrolment rate of girls, particularly at the secondary level; introducing local languages as additional tools of instruction; and improving the overall quality of education. Technical cooperation from, inter alia, UNICEF and UNESCO should be sought.

•          Mexico, CRC, CRC/C/90 (1999) 34 at para. 187.

The high drop-out and repetition rates in primary and secondary schools, and the disparities in access to education between rural and urban areas remain of concern. The situation of children belonging to indigenous groups regarding their access to education and the low relevance of the current bilingual educational programmes available for them are particularly of concern. Efforts should continue to be taken to strengthen educational policies and the system in order to reduce regional disparities in access to education and to strengthen ongoing retention programmes and vocational training for drop-out students. Effective measures should continue to be taken to improve the educational situation of children belonging to the most vulnerable groups, in particular, with regard to bilingual education programmes for children belonging to indigenous groups. Technical assistance should be considered in this area from UNICEF and UNESCO.

See also:

•          Peru, CRC, CRC/C/94 (2000) 64 at para. 378.

•          India, CRC, CRC/C/94 (2000) 10 at paras. 88 and 90.

Paragraph 88

There is serious concern regarding the striking disparities in terms of access to education, attendance at primary and secondary levels and drop-out rates between: different states, rural and urban areas, boys and girls, the affluent and poor, and children belonging to scheduled castes and tribes. The importance of focusing attention on improving the provision and quality of education is emphasized, especially in view of its potential benefit for addressing various concerns, including the situation of girls and reducing the incidence of child labour.

Paragraph 90

It is recommended that the State party undertake studies on and develop measures to address the prevailing disparities in access to education; to improve the quality of teacher training programmes and the school environment; to ensure that the quality of non-formal education schemes is monitored and guaranteed, and that working and other children who participate in such schemes are integrated into mainstream education. The State party should ensure and facilitate opportunities for the most vulnerable groups of children to proceed to secondary education.

•          Armenia, CRC, CRC/C/94 (2000) 53 at para. 338.

In line with the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD/C/304/Add.51), the Committee expresses its concern that the requirement for teaching in the Armenian language may in practice deny full access to education to ethnic and national minorities. Low wages have forced teachers to offer private tuition, creating a two-tier system of education.

•          South Africa, CRC, CRC/C/94 (2000) 81 at paras. 431 and 447.

Paragraph 431

It is noted that the principle of non-discrimination (article 2) is reflected in the new Constitution as well as in domestic legislation. That insufficient measures have been adopted to ensure that all children are guaranteed access to education, health and other social services is still a concern. Of particular concern are certain vulnerable groups of children, including Black children; girls; children with disabilities, especially those with learning disabilities; child workers; children living in rural areas; children working and/or living on the streets; children in the juvenile justice system; and refugee children. It is recommended that the State party increase its efforts to ensure implementation of the principle of non-discrimination and full compliance with article 2 of the Convention, particularly as it relates to the vulnerable groups.

Paragraph 447

Concern is expressed that inequality in access to education remains in some areas, particularly among Black children, girls and children from economically disadvantaged families, many of whom still do not attend school. The continued practice of discrimination in some schools, particularly against Black children in racially mixed schools, is a concern. Many children, especially in Black communities, do not enjoy the right to leisure, recreation and cultural activities. The State party is encouraged to continue its efforts to promote and facilitate school attendance, particularly among previously disadvantaged children, girls and children from economically disadvantaged families. The State party should take additional measures to ensure non-discrimination within the school environment. Furthermore, effective measures should be taken to improve the quality of education and to provide access for all children within the State party. In light of article 31, it is recommended that the State party take effective measures to ensure that children, especially those in Black communities, enjoy the right to leisure, recreation and cultural activities.

See also:

•          Djibouti, CRC, CRC/C/97 (2000) 96 at paras. 536 and 537.

•          Norway, CRC, CRC/C/97 (2000) 43 at paras. 235 and 236.

Paragraph 235

Concern is expressed about the approach taken by the State party’s Act No. 61 of 17 July 1998 relating to primary, lower secondary and upper secondary education. This introduces a new common curriculum on “Religions, Knowledge and Ethical Education”, which may be discriminatory. The Committee is concerned notably by the process of providing for exemptions to those children and parents who do not wish to participate in parts of the teaching.

Paragraph 236

The implementation of the new curriculum should be reviewed and an alternative exemption process should be considered.

•          Cambodia, CRC, CRC/C/97 (2000) 64 at paras. 358, 384 and 385.

Paragraph 358

The enjoyment by all children of all the rights enshrined in the Convention should be ensured without any distinction. The State party should take effective measures to eliminate discrimination against girls, in particular with regard to their access to education.

Paragraph 384

While welcoming the current efforts being carried out by the State party, in cooperation with international agencies, to improve its educational system, concern is expressed about the fact that primary education is not compulsory; that although enrolment rates in primary school are relatively high, equal access to quality education is not ensured owing to a lack of schools in rural and remote areas; that there are gender disparities in school attendance; that there are high repetition and drop-out rates; and that a majority of children belonging to minority groups do not have access to any form of education.

Paragraph 385

The State party should continue to undertake effective measures to make primary education free and compulsory for all children; to increase the enrolment rates and decrease drop-out and repetition rates; to increase access to schools, in particular for poor children, girls, children belonging to minority groups and children living in remote areas.

See also:

•          Central African Republic, CRC, CRC/C/100 (2000) 77 at para. 425.

•          Finland, CRC, CRC/C/100 (2000) 8 at paras. 73-76.

Paragraph 73

The Committee joins the State party in expressing concern at the lay-off of teachers in some municipalities due to economic factors, which may have an adverse effect on teaching and on the

quality of education.

Paragraph 74

The revised school legislation should be implemented in order to ensure equality between the different regions of the country and between the various schools and educational establishments.

Paragraph 75

It appears that education for refugee children in their language is available only in those municipalities which can provide sufficient resources.

Paragraph 76

The State party is encouraged to consider measures through which asylum-seeking and refugee children can be granted equal access to the same standard of services, in particular education, irrespective of who they are and where they live.

•          Burundi, CRC, CRC/C/100 (2000) 17 at paras. 149 and 150.

Paragraph 149

The Committee is very concerned at the dramatic fall in the number of children attending primary and secondary school in the State party, at the insufficient number of qualified teachers working in rural communities and in camps, at the lack of adequate teaching equipment and at repeated attacks by armed persons on schools. Concern is also expressed about the limited access of children with disabilities to formal or vocational educational opportunities and at the proportionally low number of girls attending primary or secondary school.

Paragraph 150

The State party is urged to continue and strengthen its efforts to rebuild and reopen schools, recruit qualified teachers in those areas where they are needed, make available adequate teaching equipment and ensure that all children, including indigent and displaced children, have equal access to education opportunities. A clear programme of action for increasing children’s access to formal education should be developed. The State party should ensure that children with disabilities have access to formal and vocational educational opportunities and that every effort is made to ensure that girls and boys have equal access to educational opportunities.

•          United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (Overseas Territories), CRC, CRC/C/100 (2000) 40 at paras. 251 and 252.

Paragraph 251

With regard to access to education, it is noted with concern that the travelling teacher service in the Falkland Islands does not include secondary schools and that children from Camp must attend secondary school in Stanley, where they are accommodated in government hostels for which their parents must pay. The academic under-achievement of boys in some of the Overseas Territories, including the Falkland Islands and the Caribbean Territories is noted. It is also of concern that while the new nationality policy of the United Kingdom provides full citizenship to nationals of the Overseas Territories, students from these Territories who wish to pursue further studies in the United Kingdom continue to pay more in tuition fees than students from the United Kingdom.

Paragraph 252

All appropriate measures should be taken to prevent and discourage truancy and to encourage children, especially boys, to stay in school, particularly during the period of compulsory education. The State party is urged to undertake a study on the academic under-achievement of boys, with a view to understanding the scope and nature of the problem and to enhancing the academic achievement of boys, particularly in the Caribbean Territories and the Falkland Islands. The Falkland Islands should take all appropriate measures to ensure that the inability to pay does not limit or prevent adequate and equal access to education for children from Camp. The State party should review its higher education policies to ensure non-discrimination against nationals from the Overseas Territories in the payment of fees when they pursue studies in the United Kingdom.

•          Tajikistan, CRC, CRC/C/100 (2000) 53 at paras. 287-289.

Paragraph 287

The guarantee of non-discrimination in article 2 of the Convention may be jeopardized by the introduction of fees for State health and education services, which may pose barriers to access by low-income households.

Paragraph 288

All necessary measures should be taken to ensure that all children within the jurisdiction enjoy all the rights set out in the Convention without discrimination, in accordance with article 2. The State party should prioritize and target social services for children belonging to the most vulnerable groups.

Paragraph 289

Concern is expressed that discrimination on the grounds of gender persists de facto. The persistence of negative stereotypical attitudes relating to the roles and responsibilities of women and men is a concern. In particular, concern is expressed that families cannot afford the costs imposed by school attendance and frequently give preference to the education of male children.

•          Slovakia, CRC, CRC/C/100 (2000) 100 at paras. 590 and 591.

Paragraph 590

It is noted with concern that most Roma children attend special schools because of real or perceived language and cultural differences between the Roma and the majority; because the School Act does not offer instruction in the Roma language; and because of the negative, stereotypical description of the Roma and their children in general.

Paragraph 591

Measures should be designed that are aimed at ensuring that Roma children have equal access to and opportunities to attend regular school with supportive education, if necessary. The State party should examine to what extent the current situation of the Roma language in the education system, with respect to both law and practice, meets the demands of the Roma population and their children and consider, as appropriate, further measures aimed at ensuring education or instruction in the Roma language, with reference to article 29 of the Convention. Teacher training in this language should be strengthened. In accordance with article 29(c) of the Convention, the State party should ensure that the education system and the media in particular foster positive attitudes towards minorities and intercultural dialogue between the minorities and the majority, including children.

•          Comoros, CRC, CRC/C/100 (2000) 110 at paras. 640 and 641.

Paragraph 640

School enrolment ratios are low and equal access to education is not ensured. The high level of illiteracy in the country, the gender disparities in school attendance and high drop out rates are also matters of concern.

Paragraph 641

Efforts should be continued to promote and facilitate school attendance, particularly among girls. In the light of article 28 of the Convention, the State party should take effective measures to ensure that primary education is available to all, to improve the quality of teaching and to reduce drop-out rates. The State party is encouraged to strengthen its educational system, if necessary by seeking further international assistance, from inter alia, UNICEF and UNESCO.

•          Latvia, CRC, CRC/C/103 (2001) 9 at paras. 78 and 79.

Paragraph 78

It is of concern that the Education Law of 1998 foresees that, as of 2004, all State-funded schools will provide secondary education in Latvian only, while bilingual education will be available only until 9th grade.

Paragraph 79

The State party is encouraged to ensure that children belonging to minorities can also use their own language in secondary education, in accordance with articles 29 and 30 of the Convention.

•          Ethiopia, CRC, CRC/C/103 (2001) 24 at paras. 146 and 147.

Paragraph 146

It is of concern that children and their families who are members of ethnic groups which are in a minority in a particular region, or which are not in control of the region’s administration, face discrimination. Girls and children with disabilities face extensive discrimination, inter alia, in terms of their access to education.

Paragraph 147

The State party should make appropriate additional efforts to strengthen the implementation of the non-discrimination provisions of the Constitution, giving particular attention to the situation of children from ethnic groups which are a minority within a particular province to girls and to children with disabilities.

•          Egypt, CRC, CRC/C/103 (2001) 36 at paras. 224 and 225.

Paragraph 224

Discriminatory social attitudes towards the education of girls, primarily in rural areas, result in their low school enrolment and high drop-out rates, and in early and forced marriages.

Paragraph 225

In accordance with article 2 of the Convention, effective measures should be taken, including enacting or rescinding civil and criminal legislation where necessary, to prevent and eliminate discrimination on grounds of sex and birth in all fields of civil, economic, political, social and cultural life. In this regard, the State party is encouraged to consider the practice of other States that have been successful in reconciling fundamental rights with Islamic texts.

See also:

•          Islamic Republic of Iran, CRC, CRC/C/97 (2000) 8 at para. 42.

•          Saudi Arabia, CRC, CRC/C/103 (2001) 71 at paras. 413 and 414.

Paragraph 413

The aims of education presented in the report do not adequately reflect the aims outlined under article 29 of the Convention. In particular:

(a) The State party’s policy on education for girls (e.g. articles 9 and 153 of the 1969 Policy of Education) discriminates against girls and is incompatible with article 29(a) of the Convention; and

(b) The development of and respect for human rights, tolerance and equality of the sexes and of religious and ethnic minorities are not explicitly included in the curricula.

Paragraph 414

The State party should consider introducing human rights, including the Convention on the Rights of the Child, into the school curricula, including at the primary school level, in order to address discrimination against girls in particular.

•          Dominican Republic, CRC, CRC/C/103 (2001) 91 at paras. 522 and 523.

Paragraph 522

The State party’s efforts in the field of education are welcomed, particularly the inclusion of human rights teaching, including children’s rights, in the school curricula. However, concerns remain about the high drop-out and repetition rates in primary and secondary schools, disparities between urban and rural areas in terms of access to education and to quality education, the insufficient number of well-trained teaching staff and children’s limited access to materials and text books. Concern is also expressed at various forms of discrimination and exclusion which still affect the right to education of certain groups of children, such as pregnant adolescents, unregistered children, children with disabilities and children of Haitian origin born in the State party’s territory or belonging to Haitian migrant families, reflecting insufficient attention to article 29 of the Convention.

Paragraph 523

In the light of article 28 and other related articles of the Convention, the State party should continue its efforts in the field of education by strengthening its policies and system in order to: improve on-going retention programmes and vocational training for drop-out students; improve schools’ infrastructure; continue with curricular reform, including teaching methodologies; eradicate regional disparities with reference to school enrolment and attendance; and implement special education programmes taking into account the needs of vulnerable children. The explicit inclusion of the aims of education as mentioned in article 29 of the Convention in the school curricula is recommended.

•          Turkey, CRC, CRC/C/108 (2001) 18 at para. 130.

Measures should be undertaken to ensure that the situation of children with disabilities is adequately monitored in order to assess effectively their needs. It is also recommended that the State party further encourage their inclusion in society and integration into the regular educational system, including by providing special training to teachers and by making schools more accessible.

•          Guatemala, CRC, CRC/C/108 (2001) 47 at paras. 253 and 254.

Paragraph 253

It is of concern that the principle of non-discrimination (art. 2) is not fully implemented for children belonging to indigenous groups; urban and rural poor children, girls, children with disabilities, and displaced children, especially with regard to their access to adequate health and educational facilities.

Paragraph 254

All necessary measures should be taken to end discrimination. In this respect, the State party is encouraged to monitor discrimination against children, in particular those belonging to indigenous groups, urban and rural poor children, girls, children with disabilities, and displaced children, and to develop, on the basis of the results of such monitoring, comprehensive strategies for implementing specific and well-targeted actions aimed at ending all forms of discrimination.

•          Côte d’Ivoire, CRC, CRC/C/108 (2001) 59 at paras. 309, 310, 337 and 338.

Paragraph 309

While noting that discrimination is prohibited under the Constitution, the persistence of discrimination in the country is of concern. Of particular concern is the occurrence of discrimination against non-citizen children, children with disabilities, children born out of wedlock, children from ethnic minorities, Muslim children, and girls; particularly the low participation rate of girls in education.

Paragraph 310

In light of article 2 of the Convention, concerted efforts should be made at all levels to address discrimination, notably discrimination based on gender, disability, religion, and national, ethnic or social origin, through a review and reorientation of policies, including increased budgetary allocations for programmes targeting the most vulnerable groups. The State party should also ensure effective law enforcement, undertake studies and launch comprehensive public information campaigns to prevent and combat all forms of discrimination, where needed within the framework of international cooperation.

Paragraph 337

Of concern are the low education levels among children in the State party, gender and rural-urban disparities in school attendance, the limited access of children with disabilities to formal or vocational educational opportunities, the number of children who are several years behind in their primary education, and the high drop-out rate of children who do attend school.

Paragraph 338

It should be ensured that children with disabilities have access to formal and vocational educational opportunities and every effort should be made to ensure that girls and boys, as well as children from urban and rural areas, have equal access to educational opportunities. In this regard, assistance should be sought from UNICEF and UNESCO.

See also:

•          Cameroon, CRC, CRC/C/111 (2001) 71 at paras. 379 and 380.

•          Malawi, CRC, CRC/C/114 (2002) 104 at paras. 434 and 435.

•          United Republic of Tanzania, CRC, CRC/C/108 (2001) 71 at paras. 408 and 409.

Paragraph 408

The Education Sector Development Programme, which focuses on access and equity in education, and the Complementary Basic Education Programme which seeks to improve drop-out rates, especially of girls, are welcomed. It is noted with appreciation that the Government is considering the possibility of abolishing school fees and other types of payments for primary school children. However, concern remains about the limited access to education, especially for girls, including pregnant girls, children from economically disadvantaged families and those living in remote rural communities.

Paragraph 409

All appropriate measures, including the allocation and distribution of adequate financial, human and technical resources, should be taken to enhance the quality of education and ensure that all children enjoy the right to education. The State party should reinforce its efforts to increase access to education by abolishing user fees at the primary level. In this regard, the State party is encouraged to further consider rationalizing user fees at the secondary and tertiary levels.

•          Bhutan, CRC, CRC/C/108 (2001) 85 at paras. 452, 453, 470 and 471.

Paragraph 452

Concern is expressed about the impact on children of reports of discrimination against individuals belonging to the Lhotshampas. Of particular concern are reports that these children face de facto discrimination in access to education and other services and on the basis of status, activities or opinions of their parents or relatives.

Paragraph 453

Effective measures, including enacting or rescinding legislation where necessary, should be taken to prevent and eliminate discrimination, in accordance with article 2 of the Convention, in all fields of civil, economic, political, social and cultural life. Accessible, prompt and effective mechanisms should be established to monitor, receive and address complaints of discrimination (e.g. prompt appeal in circumstances of denial of school enrolment).

Paragraph 470

Although noting significant achievements in education indicators, it is of concern that primary education is not compulsory; that there is still a significant gender gap in enrolment; and that there are deficiencies in access to education and the quality of teacher training.

Paragraph 471

The State party should ensure that primary education is free and made compulsory; make greater efforts to close the gender gap; and allocate the required resources to address access to education and the quality of teacher training.