State Reports - CESCR - Israel - E/1990/5/Add.39(3) (1997)

Distr.

GENERAL

E/1990/5/Add.39(3)
20 January 1998

Original: ENGLISH

Initial report : Israel. 20/01/98.

E/1990/5/Add.39(3). (State Party Report)

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PART III

CONTENTS (cont')

	Paragraphs

Article 12 - The right to the highest attainable standard of health	529 - 598
Article 13 - The right to education	599 - 687
Article 15 - The right to take part in cultural life and enjoy scientific progress	688 - 791
	688 - 791

Article 12 - The right to the highest attainable standard of health

Introductory overview

529. Israel is a member party of the World Health Organization (WHO). Israel's last report to the WHO, "Highlights on Health in Israel", was submitted in 1996 and covers data up to 1993. It is attached in Annex 3 of this report.

530. This introductory overview is a reproduction of the summary of the report, updated to 1996, with the addition of the following table, which presents the main data on the indicators of the physical and mental health of the Israeli population and on the change in these indicators over time:

SELECTED HFA INDICATORS FOR ISRAEL

Indicator title	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995
1. Demographic and socio-economic
Mid-year population, total	3,879,000	3,949,700	4,026,700	4,037,600	4,159,100	4,232,900	4,298,800	4,368,900	4,441,600	4,518,200	4,660,100	4,946,200	5,123,500	5,261,400	5,399,300	5,539,700
Mid-year population, male	1,938,300	1,973,000	2,010,800	2,011,600	2,075,700	2,112,300	2,144,600	2,179,000	2,215,100	2,253,200	2,321,000	2,458,300	2,543,000	2,609,400	2,675,800	.
Mid-year population, female	1,940,700	1,976,700	2,015,900	2,026,000	2,083,400	2,120,600	2,154,200	2,189,900	2,226,500	2,265,000	2,339,100	2,487,900	2,580,500	2,652,000	2,723,500	.
Live birth, total	93,484	93,308	96,695	98,724	98,478	99,376	99,341	99,022	100,454	100,757	103,349	105,725	110,062	103,330	114,543	117,182
Live birth, male	48,144	47,204	49,566	50,838	50,914	50,911	50,936	50,559	51,603	51,638	53,013	54,141	56,603	57,775	58,855	60,155
Live birth, female	45,340	46,104	47,129	47,886	47,564	48,465	48,405	48,463	48,851	49,119	50,336	51,584	53,459	45,555	55,688	57,027
Total fertility rate	3.14	3.06	3.12	3.14	3.13	3.12	3.09	3.05	3.06	2.90	2.80	2.80	2.70	2.80	2.90	.
% Unemployed persons, total	5	5	5	5	6	7	7	6	6	9	10	11	11	10	8	6
Annual rate of inflation	133	102	132	191	445	185	20	16	16	21	18	18	9	11	15	8
GNP, US$ per capita	5,423	5,746	5,968	6,526	5,977	5,474	6,677	7,881	9,660	9,633	10,958	11,766	12,589	12,346	13,580	15,406
GDP, US$ per capita	5,615	5,887	6,151	6,729	6,240	5,699	6,922	8,140	9,911	9,887	11,223	11,987	12,822	12,522	13,752	15,660
GDP, PPP$ per capita	6,922	7,756	8,269	8,813	9,221	9,807	9,947	10,728	11,339	11,794	12,647	13,288	13,942	14,346	15,205	16,273
2. Health status
Number of deadborn fetuses, 1,000 + grams	422	504	482	506	469	459	423	457	453	418	343	396	409	.	.
Number of deaths, 0 - 6 days, 1,000 + grams	.	385	328	380	370	321	325	317	326	280	293	258	242	204	208	193
Number of live births, 1,000 + grams	.	91,205	94,224	96,765	96,157	97,248	97,637	97,801	99,119	99,406	101,283	104,182	107,132	109,149	111,391	113,993
Number of deaths, 0 - 6 days, 500 + grams	.	629	550	608	575	551	525	522	469	461	460	414	408	339	365	331
Number of deadborn fetuses, 500 + grams	455	547	529	539	509	524	478	517	515	469	381	448	458	.	.	.
New cases, tuberculosis	249	227	232	222	257	368	239	184	226	160	234	505	345	419	343	392
New cases, hepatitis - total	3,924	4,525	3,146	3,898	4,965	4,558	3,208	2,058	2,813	2,452	2,650	1,751	1,353	3,547	3,891	2.308
New cases, hepatitis - A	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	1,037	3,041	3,483	2,165
New cases, hepatitis - B	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	139	138	132	69
New cases, syphilis	.	.	.	.	122	160	54	32	41	45		.	.	156	118	.
New cases, gonococcal infections	.	.	.	.	644	674	424	127	135	146	0	0	0	0	0	0

Indicator title	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995
New cases, pertussis	19	25	62	78	7	24	47	96	7	260	189	35	99	138	71	59
Number of new cases, measles	215	228	7,864	129	137	3,005	1,951	438	178	29	212	991	66	141	1,565	28
Number of new cases, malaria	.	.	.	.	.	.	36	94	268	251	183	67	213	58	26	45
Number of new cases, diphtheria	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Number of new cases, tetanus	2	3	3	2	2	3	1	1	3	1	0	5	0	2	1	1
Number of new cases, acute poliomyelitis	11	8	5	4	1	2	0	2	16	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Number of new cases, congenital rubella	.	.	.	.	.	.	0	2	.	.	.	0	6	2	1	0
Number of new cases, neonatal	0	1	2	1	0	0	0	1	2	1	0	0	0	0	0	0
Number of new cases, rubella	881	451	602	2,302	7,189	556	284	4,220	1,718	354	99	437	2,145	104	62	46
Number of new cases, mumps	3,041	5,956	5,092	3,904	6,584	2,113	1,052	2,579	6,999	891	364	349	676	895	891	117
Estimated cumulative cases, HIV seropositive	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	2,000	2,000
New cases, clinically diagnosed AIDS	.	0	2	8	5	10	25	19	24	34	45	37	39	55	32	53
Hospital discharges: infectious and parasitic diseases	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	22,798	.	.	.	.	.	.	30,245	.
Hospital discharges: all cancers	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	30,632	.	.	.	.	.	.	54,374	.
Number of new cases of cancer, all sites, total	8,866	8,942	8,980	8,663	9,785	9,930	10,106	10,088	10,165	10,987	12,253	13,109	13,354	14,072	.	.
Number of new cases of cancer, all sites, male	4,400	4,409	4,393	4,273	4,794	4,883	4,961	4,992	4,878	5,283	5,820	6,117	6,389	6,694	.	.
Number of new cases of cancer, all sites, female	4,466	4,533	4,587	4,390	4,991	5,047	5,145	5,096	5,278	5,704	6,433	6,992	6,965	7,378	.	.
Number of cases, malignant neoplasms, total	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.

Indicator title	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995
Number of cases, malignant neoplasms, male	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.
Number of cases, malignant neoplasms, female	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.
Number of new cases of trachea/ bronchus/lung cancer, total	718	715	757	755	858	883	792	870	829	937	946	949	905	987	.	.
Number of new cases of trachea/ bronchus/lung cancer, male	536	532	565	543	637	647	554	654	601	667	692	680	661	700	.	.
Number of new cases of trachea/ bronchus/lung cancer, female	182	183	192	212	221	236	238	216	228	270	254	269	244	287	.	.
New cases, cancer of the female breast	1,174	1,152	1,243	1,128	1,317	1,289	1,360	1,305	1,409	1,616	1,811	2,005	2,049	2,153	.	.
New cases, cancer of the cervix	64	82	86	85	66	95	79	91	97	124	118	117	148	139	.	.
Number of cases, diabetes mellitus	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.
Number, mental health patients in hospital, 365 + day	6,163	6,106	6,141	6,102	5,977	5,854	5,606	5,285	5,076	5,014	4,951	4,865	4,812	4,824	4,771	4,578
Number of new cases of mental disorders	4,548	4,486	3,962	3,570	3,812	3,485	3,124	3,115	2,933	3,196	3,293	3,558	3,517	3,699	3,714	4,141
Number of new cases of alcoholic psychosis	13	5	30	31	39	28	22	26	29	23	27	35	38	35	45	51
Number of cases, mental disorders	8,678	.	.	8,164	8,059	7,780	.	7,167	7,036	.	6,877	.	6,867	6,866	6,949	6,846
Hospital discharges: diseases of circulatory system	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	64,876	.	.	.	.	.	.	102,302	.
Hospital discharges: ischaemic heart disease	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	31,127	.	.	.	.	.	.	47,439	.
Hospital discharges: cerebrovascular diseases	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	7,365	.	.	.	.	.	.	12,425	.
Hospital discharges: diseases of respiratory system	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	41,060	.	.	.	.	.	.	65,368	.
Number of cases, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.

Indicator title	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995
Hospital discharges: diseases of digestive system	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	42,879	.	.	.	.	.	.	63,786	.
Hospital discharges: diseases musculoskeletal & connect.tissue	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	14,708	.	.	.	.	.	.	26,280	.
Hospital discharges: injury and poisoning	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	37,069	.	.	.	.	.	.	55,576	.
Absenteeism due to illness, days per person per year	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.
Newly granted invalidity (disability) cases	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	13,445	14,117	11,659	18,176	20,667	20,801	15,516
Number, persons receiving social benefits due to disablement	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	108,499	111,702	113,931	118,401	125,436	132,618	140,089
% of disabled regular occupation, 15 - 64 years	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	21	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.

E/1990/5/Add.39
page 1
E/1990/5/Add.39
page 1
531. The population of Israel is relatively young. This is understandable in light of the fact that the population has increased almost sixfold since the country's independence in 1948, mainly as a result of immigration.

532. Life expectancy at birth in Israel was 76.6 years in 1992, close to the average in the European Union (EU). Male life expectancy was 74.7 years, the third highest among a reference group of 20 European countries*. In marked contrast, female life expectancy was 78.5 years, sixteenth highest and well below the EU average of 80.0 years. Thus, the difference in life expectancy in Israel between men and women is the smallest of the 20 reference countries. The same situation existed in 1994 when life expectancy for men was 75.5 years and for women, 79.5 years. This mortality pattern, where male mortality is among the lowest in the reference countries, while that of women among the highest, also holds for all the main causes of death.

533. Infant mortality declined by 37 per cent between 1982 and 1992, but remained the second highest among the reference countries. By 1995, however, the rate had fallen from 7.5 to 6.8 per 1,000 live births.

534. The Standardized Death Rate (SDR) for cardiovascular diseases in the 0-64 age group was close to the EU average in 1992. The SDRs for ischaemic heart disease were the fifth highest of the reference countries for women but the eighth lowest for men. The SDRs for cerebrovascular diseases in the 0-64 age group were close to the EU average for women and below the average for men. In both these diseases, both male and female SDRs fell sharply from 1982 to 1992.

535. The SDR for cancer in the 0-64 age group was one of the lowest in the European reference countries. The overall cancer rate for men was the lowest of all these countries, while the rate for women was close to the EU average. The SDR for external causes was below the EU average for men and close to the average for women. With respect to suicide, Israeli males show a lower average than general in the EU (its increase of 43 per cent over the last 10 years is, however, one of the highest) but the rate for women is about the average.

536. Nationwide health promotion programmes have gained momentum during the last few years, especially those emphasizing physical activity. The percentage of smokers in the over-20 population declined from 38 per cent in 1973 to 31 per cent in 1992. Among women the drop was even greater. A number of new laws restricting smoking in public areas and workplaces have recently come into force. Alcohol consumption in 1993 was the lowest of all the reference countries.

537. Persons aged 20-74 who were taking medication or following a special diet for hypertension make up 8.5 per cent of the population. The prevalence of high-serum cholesterol (240 mg/dl or more) in the working population

* The 15 member States of the European Union plus Iceland, Israel, Malta, Norway, and Switzerland.aged 20-64 is 18.3 per cent. Some 25 per cent of this population has been estimated to be overweight. Since the 1950s, the intake per head of total calories, fats, animal fats, and protein has increased. The level of leisure-time activity in the general population is low: some 20 per cent of persons aged 14+ participate in such activity at least once a week.

538. Environmental control is the joint responsibility of the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of the Environment. Popular awareness of environmental issues is growing: air and water quality are the key issues.

539. Health expenditure has continued to rise as a percentage of GNP, reaching 8.7 per cent in 1995.

National health policy

540. After years of political and professional debate, the health-care system in Israel is at last in the process of fundamental reform, both of its conceptualization and its services. There are three major elements to the reform:

- a National Health Insurance Law

- the withdrawal of the Government from direct health-care provision

- the internal reorganization of the Ministry of Health.

The National Health Insurance Law

541. The Israeli Government has always assumed its responsibility to ensure universal enjoyment of basic health services. This commitment, which grew in scope over the years, was for the first time legally entrenched, with the enactment of the National Health Insurance Law 1994, which came into effect in January 1995. The following is the main features of this complex piece of legislation. (The full text is attached in Annex 1 to this report.)

542. This new law is based on mandatory insurance. All residents of Israel are insured by one of the four authorized health funds, each of which must provide, at least, the basic package of services and medications, as detailed in the law. Health insurance premiums are centrally collected by the National Insurance Institute, in the same way Social Security Insurance is collected (see under article 9 of the Covenant). These premiums are then distributed to the Health funds according to a capitation formula. It should be stressed that one's right to health services is secured even in case insurance premiums failed to be paid.

543. The basic package of services mandated by the law includes all basic physical and mental primary care, including services and medications. Every insured person has the right to choose his/her health fund and no fund may refuse to enrol an applicant, regardless of age, or physical or mental condition.

544. The State's responsibility under the law is not only to regulate the activities of the Health funds (including recognition, supervision, enforcement, etc.). Actually, regulation powers were always given to, and used by, the Minister of Health in various laws - the People's Health Ordinance 1940, the Physicians Ordinance [New Version] 1976, the Dentists Ordinance [New Version] 1976, the Rights of the Patient Law 1996 (full text of the latter is attached in Annex 2 to this report).

545. The importance of the National Health Insurance Law in the context of the present Covenant, lies in that it imposes on the Ministry of Finance the final responsibility to refund the health funds for any gap between their income from insurance premiums and their factual expenses on all services mandated by the law.

Withdrawal of the Government and reorganization of the Ministry of Health

546. The Ministry of Health's goal is to concentrate on policy-making, long-term planning, setting performance standards, quality control and quality insurance, and the evaluation of essential data. Hence, internal reorganization of the Ministry has already resulted in the establishment of new departments, e.g. a department of performance standards.

547. The Ministry owns and operates a portion of Israeli hospitals - 23 per cent of general hospitals, 50 per cent of mental health hospitals, and 4 per cent of geriatric hospitals. The remainder are profit-making or public non-profit facilities. Under the reformed system, government hospitals will become self-financing, non-profit facilities. The Ministry of Health will supervise their operation but not participate directly in their day-to-day operation.

548. The first steps taken by the Government towards transformation of its hospitals into legally autonomous entities have encountered resistance, especially from trade unions. The process is certainly going to be a long one.

549. At community level, primary health care is provided in Israel by the following:

- Health fund clinics

- Hospital outpatient clinics and emergency rooms

- Private clinics

- Family health centres (also provide preventive care).

550. Most primary care is supplied by the four health funds, either by direct provision through its own clinics and medical staff or by purchase. Member premiums cover the cost of most of these services, both outpatient and in-patient, as well as medications. Each insured person is free to choose any of the general practitioners or specialist physicians from the list employed by his/her health fund. Most affiliated physicians are not paid fee-per-visit but by salary or reimbursement.

551. A national survey of health services utilization, conducted in the first quarter of 1993, showed that 83 per cent of the most recent visits to a general practitioner/family doctor were made to health fund clinics, 12 per cent to private clinics, and 3 per cent to hospital outpatient clinics or emergency rooms. With respect to visits to specialists, 61 per cent took place at health fund clinics, 21 per cent at hospital outpatient clinics or emergency rooms, and 16 per cent at private clinics.

552. Family health centres span the whole country, operated by central government, local government authorities or the health funds, according to an agreed geographical distribution. Some 1,000 cover the urban areas while public health nurses visit small and peripheral localities at least once every two weeks. The services provided comprise physicians' examinations, developmental examinations, monitoring of breastfeeding, vaccination, and guidance and advice to mothers.

Long-term policy

553. In 1989 the Ministry of Health issued its Guidelines for Long-term National Health Policy in Israel, in which it formulated recommendations incorporating and promoting equity in health, health promotion and disease prevention, community involvement, intersectoral cooperation, primary medical care and international cooperation as the six principles underlying health objectives and priorities for Israel.

554. The strategy that follows aims at translating a number of policy goals into specific activities based on solid epidemiological data. The strategy is based on the following principles:

(a) Equity in health: While absolute equity in health is out of reach for biological/genetic reasons, the National Health Insurance Act that came into force on 1 January 1995 at least ensures equity of access to health-care services for the whole population. In addition, emphasis will be placed on reducing the gaps in health status between different population groups, such as new immigrants from specific countries, certain ethnic minorities, and people living in underprivileged areas.

(b) Primary health care: The main means for ensuring equity will be primary health care, as defined by the World Health Organization under its policy of Health for All by the Year 2000. Primary care will include health promotion, health protection, disease prevention, medical care, and rehabilitation and will be delivered by multidisciplinary teams of staffers from medicine, nursing, social work, and other health professions.

(c) Government responsibility: The Government will assume responsibility for the health of the people to the same degree as its responsibility for its welfare in other domains, such as security and education. It will be accountable to the people for the health service it guarantees.

(d) The rights of individuals and the general public: Individuals and the public at large will have the right to participate actively in shaping public health services and in supervising them. The Government will encourage such participation, which will include public debate, including in the mass media.

(e) Appropriate health technology: The Government will take measures to ensure the use of the appropriate technology, from the scientific, technical, social and economic points of view, in all areas of health care. It will encourage all concerned to take similar measures.

(f) Intersectoral and interdisciplinary action: To ensure an appropriate level of health, the Government will foster coordinated action by all sectors and disciplines concerned.

(g) Relationship between divisions of the health-care system: The Government will ensure appropriate mutual relationship between the primary, secondary and tertiary sections of the health system. This will entail removing unnecessary duplication, strengthening primary care, and providing incentives to hospitals to support other divisions of the system.

(h) Command and coordination: The Ministry of Health will provide command and coordination across all components of the strategy. In view of the intersectoral nature of the strategy, it will be approved by the Government as a whole.

555. The strategy has the following components:

- A demographic and epidemiological overview, describing the historical factors and current health situation that led to the strategy.

- The 1995 Health Care System Reforms introducing universal national health insurance and managerial autonomy for public hospitals, and reshaping the functions of the Ministry of Health.

- Substantive health programmes. A number of programmes have been selected for priority attention. Specific targets have been set, and related activities have been allocated to sectors, institutions, professions, and public bodies within the health-care system.

- Monitoring and evaluation are integral parts of the strategy. Inter alia, the degree of observance of strategy principles will be measured. Indicators will be developed to measure quality of life and welfare, including indicators of disability-adjusted life-year gain.

The following is the list of priority programmes:

(a) Health promotion

(b) Family health

(c) Control of cardiovascular diseases

(d) Control of malignant diseases

(e) Control of diabetes

(f) Mental health

(g) Control of substance abuse and alcoholism

(h) Prevention of accidents and physical and sexual violence

(i) Oral health

556. In addition, mention should be made of the National Council for Community Health. This council was established in 1996 with the mandate to advise the Ministry of Health on policy on primary health care. The council has recommended that by the year 2000 each resident should have a designated "personal physician", who will provide for them a coordinated and integrated health package.

Health expenditures

557. Health expenditure as a percentage of GNP reached 8.7 per cent in 1995, compared to 8.9 per cent in 1994, 7.8 per cent in 1992, and 7.8 per cent in 1989. In 1993, households financed 52 per cent of national expenditure on health care via health insurance premiums and out-of-pocket costs, as against 32 per cent in 1984. The difference is explained by the fact that premiums and out-of-pocket costs have been considerably raised. In 1984, households' payments to health funds covered 12 per cent of national health expenditure, in 1993 the amount was 25 per cent. This reduction in the proportion of health-care costs funded from general taxation has put an increasing burden on households. Out-of-pocket costs to households for medications and services from private physicians, clinics, and dentists accounted for 20 per cent of total health-care expenditure in 1984 and for 27 per cent in 1993. In the same period, central government financing decreased from 52 per cent to 44 per cent of total health-care costs.

558. Hospital care continues to consume the greater part of health-care spending. This percentage rose continuously until 1980 when it reached 47 per cent of current spending. It then gradually declined, until 1994 when the percentage spent on hospital care was 41 per cent. For the last decade, spending on community-based facilities and preventive care has remained constant at around 33 per cent, rising to 38 per cent in 1994, of which some 60 per cent-70 per cent goes on primary care.

Health indicators of the World Health Organization

559. The trend in the infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births has been as follows:

Table 1: Infant mortality 1989-1995

	Total	Jews	Non-Jews
1989	10.1	8.2	14.7
1990	9.9	7.9	14.9
1991	9.2	7.2	14.2
1992	9.4	7.5	14.3
1993	7.8	5.7	12.8
1994	7.5	5.7	11.5
1995	6.8	5.6	9.6

560. A large part of the fall in infant mortality is due to the fall in mortality from infectious diseases and pneumonia. Death from congenital disorders is also showing a downward trend. In every population group, the higher the mother's education level, the lower the infant mortality rate. Mothers in the age groups "Less than 20" and "35+" show a higher infant mortality rate than mothers in the 20-34 age group.

Table 2: Infant mortality (rate per 1,000 live births) by
religion and age of neonate at death, 1990-1994


	Total		Early neonatal mortality 0-6 days		Late neonatal mortality 7-27 days		Post-neonatal mortality 28-365 days
	Rate	Per cent	Rate	Per cent	Rate	Per cent	Rate	Per cent
Total	8.8	100	4.1	46.6	1.4	15.9	3.2	36.4
Jews	6.8	100	3.6	52.9	1.2	17.6	2.0	29.4
Non-Jews	13.5	100	5.3	39.2	1.9	14.1	6.3	46.7

561. From 1990 to 1994, almost half the deaths of neonates occurred in the first six days of life, this proportion being much lower among non-Jews than among Jews (39.2 per cent v. 52.9 per cent). The disparity in post-neonatal death rates (28-265 days) between Jews and non-Jews is particularly wide (2.0 v. 6.3) and so is the disparity in the percentage of post-neonatal deaths in total infant mortality (29.4 per cent v. 46.7 per cent). The reason for the relatively high rates of mortality in the post-neonatal period among non-Jews should be investigated, as death at this time of life is usually associated with environmental factors, such as infectious diseases and accidents, and is to a considerable extent preventable. (Programmes for dealing with this problem are detailed below, in Section 7.)

Table 3: Infant mortality (rate per 1,000 live births) in 24 countries 1983-1993

Country	1983	1993
Turkey	82.9	52.6
Portugal	19.2	8.7
Greece	14.6	8.5
USA	11.2	8.3
Belgium	10.6	8.0
Israel	13.7	7.8
Jews	11.4	5.7
Non-Jews	22.7	13.1
Spain	10.9	7.6
Italy	12.3	7.3
New Zealand	12.5	7.3
Canada	8.5	6.8
Austria	11.9	6.5
France	9.1	6.5
The Netherlands	8.4	6.3
Australia	9.6	6.1
Ireland	9.8	5.9
Germany	10.2	5.8
Switzerland	7.6	5.6
Denmark	7.7	5.4
Norway	7.9	5.0
Iceland	6.2	4.8
Sweden	7.0	4.8
Finland	6.1	4.4
U.K.	10.1	6.6*
Japan	6.2	4.5*

* 1992

562. Israel is currently in 19th place out of the 24 developed countries in the above table (compared to 21st place in 1983), with an infant mortality rate about that of Italy, Belgium and Spain. The rate among Israeli Jews is close to that in Germany, Denmark and Switzerland, ranking 7th out of the 24.

563. Water supply: Almost all Israeli households (99.8 per cent) are connected to the main water supply networks. About two thirds of Israel's water is pumped from the Sea of Galilee and the national aquifer. Galilee water is piped all the way to the south of the country. For about 50,000 Bedouin, the majority in the Negev (south), water is not piped directly to the family home but to Mekorot National Water Co. standpipes, from where it is carried by vehicle, camel, or on foot to the family home.

564. Sewage: Most households (80 per cent) dispose of their sewage via the central sewage system. Some small settlements use septic tanks and cesspools, but they are gradually being connected to the central sewage system.

565. Immunization: The percentage of children immunized against diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, measles and poliomyelitis is as follows:

	DTP 4 doses	eIPV 3 doses	OPV 3 doses	MMR 1 dose

1993
Total	92	93	93	95
Jews	91	92	92	94
Non-Jews	94	95	95	96

1994
Total	91	92	92	94
Jews	90	91	91	93
Non-Jews	93	94	93	97

1995
Total	94	95	95	95
Jews	93	94	94	94
Non-Jews	98	99	98	98

* Israel no longer immunizes routinely against tuberculosis, except for new immigrants from Ethiopia, India and Yemen.

566. Life expectancy data are as follows:

LIFE EXPECTANCY(1), BY SEX AND POPULATION GROUP

	Arabs and others		JewsTotal population
	Females	Males	FemalesMalesFemalesMales
1930 - 1932			62.759.9
1933 - 1935			61.859.5
1936 - 1938			64.560.8
1939 - 1941			64.662.3
1942 - 1944			65.964.1
1949			67.664.9
1950 - 1954			70.167.2
1955 - 1959			71.869.0
1960 - 1964			73.170.6
1965 - 1969 (2)			73.470.2
1970 - 1974 (2) (3)R	71.9	68.5	73.870.673.470.1
1975 - 1979	72.0	69.2	75.371.774.771.2
1975	71.5	68.2	74.570.973.970.3
1976	72.4	69.6	75.471.674.871.2
1977	71.3	68.5	75.471.974.771.3
1978	72.0	69.1	75.671.975.071.5
1979	73.1	70.0	75.872.375.371.8
1980 - 1984 (2) R	74.0	70.8	76.573.176.172.7
1980	73.4	70.0	76.272.575.772.1
1981	74.2	70.6	76.373.175.972.7
1982 (2)	73.3	70.3	76.272.875.872.5
1983	74.1	71.2	76.673.276.272.8
1984	74.2	71.5	77.173.576.673.1
1985 - 1989	75.5	72.7	77.874.177.473.8
1985	75.8	72.0	77.373.977.073.5
1986	75.0	72.2	77.173.576.873.2
1987	75.8	73.2	77.773.977.073.6
1988	75.1	72.4	78.074.277.573.9
1989	75.5	73.1	78.574.978.174.6
1990 - 1994	76.3	73.5	79.275.578.875.1
1990	75.9	73.3	78.975.378.474.9
1991	75.7	74.2	79.075.478.575.1
1992	75.5	72.4	78.975.278.474.7
1993	76.9	73.6	79.575.779.175.3
1994	77.1	73.8	79.775.979.475.5

(1) Data for multi-year periods are arithmetical means of the yearly expectancies.

(2) Exct. war casualties: see introduction.

(3) For total population and Arabs and others - averages of 1971-1974.

567. The relatively low life expectancy for Israeli women has not yet been explained. It appears to be related to a relatively high mortality from cardiovascular diseases and breast cancer.

568. Access to trained personnel: The entire population has access to trained personnel for the treatment of common diseases and injuries and a regular supply of 20 essential drugs is available within one hour's walking or travelling distance.

569. All pregnant women have access to trained personnel during pregnancy. In 1992, the maternal death rate was 5.45 per 100,000 live births, having risen from the level in 1979-1980. The 1990-1992 rate was the ninth lowest of all European Union countries. All infants have access to trained health care.
Environmental control

570. Environmental control, as far as health protection is concerned, is the joint responsibility of the Ministry of Health and Ministry of Environment.

Water pollution

571. Wastewater from households, agriculture and industry can pollute natural water sources. The Israeli Supreme Court on several occasions has recognized the importance of protecting the environment against industrial harm. It recently called for more severe sentences for offenders:

"With the increase in public awareness to offences related to protection of environment and prevention of water contamination, the legislator has been induced to determine significant penalty levels for these offences. ... Not only is this offence grave by itself, for it might adversely affect the public's standard of living and health, but ... the appellant continued to break the law after having been given a warning ... it is thus time to raise the level of penalties."

P.Cr. A. 244/96

The Chim Nir Air Services Management and Airlines (1991) Ltd. v. State of Israel

, Takdin-Supreme, vol. 96 (1) 6, 6-7.

572. Considerable efforts are made to prevent water pollution. Effluents are recycled for secondary use. Administrative authorities have been set up to control the effluent contamination of groundwater and rivers and to promote the restoration of rivers. Treated effluents are mainly kept to agricultural use. Standards of effluent quality are strictly monitored to prevent damage to public health and crops.

573. Water for domestic use is inspected and tested for bacteria and unwanted chemicals in compliance with regularly updated national standards and the recommendations of the WHO. In the past four years, water quality has substantially improved. In 1994, only 4 per cent of all test results showed the possibility of contamination. Fuel disposal and agricultural practice are also causes of water contamination.

Air pollution

574. The main sources of air pollution are energy production, transport, and industrial manufacture. A new national air quality policy was drawn up in 1994, as follows: preventing air pollution by integrating environmental considerations into physical planning, regular monitoring and periodic control systems, legislation and enforcement (including ambient and emission standards), reducing sources of pollution, and reducing pollutant emissions from motor vehicles.

575. The energy economy is based on fossil fuels, mainly oil and coal. The pollution released into the atmosphere by fuel combustion shows that levels of sulphur oxides and lead have fallen, but levels of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons have risen. There has been no change in the concentrations of suspended particulate matter.

576. In 1994, 63 air quality monitoring stations were in operation. All monitor sulphur dioxide, most monitor nitrogen oxides and particulate matter, and a few monitor ozone and/or carbon monoxide. New devices monitor airborne chemicals at hazardous waste disposal sites. The limited information available indicates that sulphur dioxide levels are mostly below regulation limits, nitrogen dioxide is significantly above the limit in some areas, and ozone levels in most places exceed recommended limits.

577. As it stands today, the monitoring network is not an adequate basis for formulating a national air quality management programme. Therefore, Israel has just completed the draft plan of a multi-million-dollar national air monitoring network with a central data storage and display centre. The new network will comprise three operational levels - local monitoring stations, regional control centres and a national data processing centre. Monitoring stations will vary according to the pollutants likely to be found. Fifty new stations are planned to reinforce the existing 63. The network is to be constructed over a three-year period.

Farmland contamination

578. Three major groups of pollutants endanger farmland – fertilizers, heavy metals, pesticides and other organic additives.

579. The overuse or improper management of fertilizers results in soil pollution, mostly by nitrates. The pollution of drinking water sources by nitrates leaching from farmland has already been recorded. The accumulation of nitrates in edible crops is an obvious danger.

580. The main source of heavy metals in farmland is irrigation with polluted water or the application of contaminated solid additives. The high pH value of soil in Israel reduces the danger of plant uptake of, and water contamination by, heavy metals.

581. The use of pesticides imposes an obvious danger of toxic traces remaining in edible crops, as well as posing a risk to farmers. Residues in soil may reach water sources or be taken up by crops or other components of the soil biota, and thus reach the food chain.

Preventive care

582. The chief means of preventing infectious diseases is the vaccination programme administered by Mother and Child Clinics to neonates and toddlers. Population coverage is among the highest in the world, as stated above "Immunization".

583. In addition, cases of bacterial meningitis (meningococcal and H. influenza b) or hepatitis A, all the patient's contacts are treated by preventive measures, administered without payment by District Health Office (DHO) staff. The DHOs also monitor sanitary conditions in children's residential institutions and nursing homes to prevent illness spread by fecal-oral routes. On every report of a food-borne outbreak, DHO staff track down the source of the outbreak and take the necessary steps to improve conditions.

584. Under article 15 of the People's Health Ordinance 1940, the Director-General of the Ministry of Health or a District Health Office have the power to have any person infected with an infectious disease placed in a hospital for infectious diseases or other appropriate form of isolation, should his/her current accommodation not permit taking the precautions necessary to contain the spread of the disease.

Vulnerable groups

585. Until the end of 1994, most residents of the State of Israel were insured voluntarily in four health funds which provided medical services to 95 per cent of the population, each fund having its own particular conditions of coverage. About 200,000-300,000 persons (including about 90,000 children) were not insured in any of these funds, some of them of their own free will, preferring a private medical service, and others due to their inability to afford the monthly payment.

586. In addition to these four funds, there were (and still are) voluntary medical services available for the needy, both in the Jewish sector, mainly in ultra-orthodox circles, and in the non-Jewish sector, in charity organizations run by the various churches.

587. In January 1995 the Health Insurance Law came into effect, introducing far-reaching changes in the health system of Israel, especially in terms of equality in enjoyment of health services. One of the foremost changes was that every resident in Israel became obliged to insure him/herself in health insurance. (The definition of "resident" being the one used in the National Insurance Institute.) A person who wishes to be insured above and beyond what is provided by the basic "basket of services" defined in the law may arrange for additional, supplementary insurance by means of programmes offered by the health funds and authorized by the Ministry of Health and by the supervisor of insurance in the Ministry of Finance. The operation of the supplementary insurance programmes is closely followed and supervised by the State authorities in order to ensure that the services included therein are indeed provided in addition to the basic basket, and not instead of them.

588. Furthermore, the health funds very quickly improved their services, especially within Arab communities, in order to raise their number of members and accordingly - their funding (which the law sets by a per capita formula). Since 1993 the Ministry of Health spent about 6.5 million NIS (approximately $1.8 million) in building tens of new Mother and Child Health Care services in Arab towns and villages. The Ministry's budgets during the same period also included a sum of about 9.7 million NIS (approximately $2.7 million), aimed at "closing the gaps within Arab sector" in the field of preventive care.

589. The Ministry of Health is working intensively to reduce the Israeli Arab infant mortality rate, which is higher than among Jewish Israelis. The infant mortality rate is indeed a product of socio-economic conditions. For instance, an important reason for the gap on this indicator between Jews and non-Jews is the much higher rate of marriage between close relatives among Arabs, and particularly among Bedouin, as compared to Jews, so that the rate of congenital defects in Arab neonates is very high.

590. In the framework of the Ministry's education/information project to reduce the incidence of very young wives giving birth and to reduce infant mortality in high risk groups, an information/education campaign is being conducted on the results of inter-familial marriage. Several mobile Family Health Clinics travel among the nomadic Bedouin tribes in the south and Arab settlements of the north in an "outreach" campaign, one of whose main efforts is to raise immunization coverage for neonates and children. It should be noted that immunization coverage among the Arab population as a whole is very high - over 95 per cent.

591. One prong of the project attempts to discourage marriage among close relatives; another attempts to encourage pregnant women to make more use of in utero diagnostic procedures; and a third aims to encourage mothers to make more use of the Mother and Child Health Care services dispersed throughout the country. One cannot measure the short-term results of such projects. More time is required before measurable results are to be expected.

592. Nevertheless, the overall health-care situation of the Bedouin, living mainly in the sparsely populated areas of the south of the country, is worse than that of the general population. The radical solution is their transfer to permanent settlements, which is current national policy. Detailed analysis of this topic is provided in this report under article 11 of the Covenant ("Illegal Settlements").

593. In the interim, the following special measures are being taken:

- Every Bedouin school has running water installed;

- Every Bedouin encampment is connected on request to the Mekorot pipe-system;

- The quality of Mekorot-supplied water is regularly sampled;

- Leaflets are distributed explaining how to prevent infection via the water supply between standpipe and the encampment and within the encampment.

Community participation

594. Eighteen Israeli towns are participants in the Healthy Cities Project, whose objectives are as follows:

(a) To eliminate or reduce health status disparities between population groups;

(b) To help develop preventive medicine;

(c) To promote health.

595. All measures are based on a local needs assessment and are carried out with the cooperation of local citizens. Each participating town prepares a health profile of the town and then appoints a Project Steering Committee, comprising representatives of all health-care service providers in the town (including volunteers) and of the public. The committee reviews the health status profile and then defines needs and the priority between them.

596. Local Community Centres in Israel also run health promotion programmes.

Health education

597. The relatively high rate of HIV infection among Ethiopian Jews in Israel has persuaded the Government to allocate an NIS 4.5 million budget to a multi-project AIDS prevention plan. The planned projects are targeted at three groups of population:

(a) HIV patients and carriers. Coordinators from the Ethiopian community will make contact with all HIV patients and carriers in their local communities. They will help them communicate with the professionals at the local AIDS Treatment Centre and educate them in ways to avoid spreading the disease, principally by teaching safe sex;

(b) The Ethiopian community at large. Health education projects for schools, the army, and higher educational institutions are planned. The mass media will also be used;

(c) Israeli (non-Ethiopian) care-givers. Seminars will be conducted periodically for teachers, social workers, health-care professionals, and workers in immigrant absorption who come into contact with Ethiopians. The aim is to help the professionals understand Ethiopian culture and thus enable them to be more sensitive and effective in their dealings with Ethiopian clients.

598. Projects are under way in the towns Afula, Hadera, and Beersheva, among the non-Jewish population, to discourage marriage between close relatives and to encourage the acceptance of antenatal screening for congenital defects.

Article 13 - The right to education

The legal framework

599. Education constitutes an important value in Israeli society. In the words of the Supreme Court of the State of Israel:

"Education is indeed a social instrument, the importance of which cannot be overstated. It is one of the most important functions of government and of the State. Education is vital for the existence of a free, living and functioning democratic system. It is a necessary element, which is required for anyone's self-fulfilment. It is vital for the existence of society, where people live and take action to improve their personal welfare, and contribute thereby to the well-being of the entire community. ... Education is undoubtedly an important tool in securing the rights and liberties of every individual, and in realizing his basic political rights, including freedom of speech, and the right to elect and to be elected."

H.C. 1554/95

Friends of "GILAT" Association v. Minister of Education and Culture

, Takdin-Supreme, vol. 96 (2) 457.

600. The inclusion of "freedom of education" among the values enshrined in Israel's Declaration of Independence serves as further evidence to the importance attributed to education in Israel.

601. The basic components of the right to education - the right of every child to receive free education, and the parents' right to choose the kind of education given to their children, has been guaranteed by one of the first legislative acts of the Knesset, the Compulsory Education Law 1949. According to this law, compulsory education applies to all children between the ages of five (compulsory kindergarten) and 15 (10th grade) inclusive, and it is to be provided free of charge. In addition, the law provides for free education for adolescents aged 16 and 17 (11th-12th grades), as well as for 18-year-olds who did not complete their schooling in 11th grade in accordance with the official curriculum. While the State has sole responsibility for the provision of free education, the maintenance of official educational institutions is the joint responsibility of the State and the municipal education authorities. Parents have the right to choose one of the recognized educational trends of education (State or State-religious) for their children. (See below.) They also have the right to send their children to independent parochial schools, which are not run by the State, but are under its supervision.

602. Important additions to the original version of this law include a prohibition against discrimination on sectarian basis in acceptance, placement, and advancement of pupils as well as a prohibition against punishing pupils for actions or omissions on the part of their parents.

603. Another important law is the State Education Law 1953. This law provides for a six-day school week and determines the content and procedures of State education. State education is defined as education provided by the State on the basis of the curriculum approved and supervised by the Ministry of Education and Culture, without any affiliation to a party, communal body, or any other non-government organization. According to the law, State education is to be based on the values of Israel's culture, the achievements of science, love of the homeland, loyalty to the State and people of Israel, heroism and remembrance of the Holocaust, practice in agricultural work and handicrafts, pioneer training, and building a society on the foundations of freedom, tolerance, mutual assistance and love of mankind.

604. The law establishes two State education trends: State and State-religious education. State-religious education is identical in its structure to the ordinary State education system, but offers a more religious oriented curriculum and usually employs a mostly religious teaching staff. This law enables the Minister of Education, Culture and Sport to approve increasing the existing curriculum by up to 25 per cent, if 75 per cent of the parents request it.

605. Other relevant laws are:

- The Council for Higher Education Law 1958 - which establishes a council responsible for authorizing and accrediting institutions for higher education to award degrees.

- The School Inspection Law 1968 - which regulates the terms for operation of schools existing outside the ordinary school system.

- The Special Education Law 1988 - which establishes a separate education system designed to meet the needs of children with disabilities.

- The Long School Day Law 1990 - which defines the length of the school day.

606. A separate legal regime applies vis-�-vis pupils with physical or mental disabilities. The Special Education Law 1988 prescribes free education for all such children and adolescents from the ages of five to 18. According to this law by 1998, free special education for disabled individuals will be expanded to include those aged 3 to 21.

607. In 1990, the Knesset enacted the Long School Day Law 1990 designed to guarantee more school hours for all pupils in the K-12 grades. The law stipulates that the duration of the school day shall be eight hours, or less as decided by the Minister of Education and Culture. For budgetary reasons, the law is to be gradually implemented over a period of 10 years.

608. In 1996, the total number of children enrolled in the education system under the supervision of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport reached about 1,490,000 - from the pre-primary level to the end of secondary school. Other eligible pupils attend schools supervised by the Ministry of Religious Affairs and by the Ministry of Labor and Social affairs. Combined with the above figures, it is estimated that nearly 100 per cent of the children in the primary school age group attend school, as do over 90 per cent of the adolescents eligible for secondary education.

The constitutional status of the right to education

609. While it is impossible to contest the legal existence of the right to education, the scope of constitutional protection accorded to it has not yet been defined by the courts of Israel. On one occasion, a Supreme Court judge held that the right to education is not a constitutional right, citing the absence of a positive constitutional rule to that effect. However, the President of the Supreme Court in a recent case expressed the opinion that the matter is not yet settled and that the above-mentioned judicial opinion is not binding upon the full court.

Structure of the education system

610. The Israeli education system includes several main levels: pre-primary, primary, secondary, post-secondary, higher education and adult education.

Pre-primary education

611. The pre-primary education system consists of a network of kindergartens. In 1996, the kindergarten system involved 320,000 children ranging from age two to five years, attending municipal, public and private institutions. Younger children normally attend similar day-care institutions, or are put under the supervision of nannies. The goal of early childhood education is to lay an educational foundation, which includes the development of language and thought, learning and creative abilities, social and motor skills.

Primary and secondary education

612. Until 1968, the school system of Israel was divided into primary school (1st-8th grades) and high school (9th-12th grades). In 1968, a reform was decided upon which divided the system into three educational institutions:

(a) Primary school (1st-6th grade);

(b) Lower secondary school (7th-9th grade);

(c) Upper secondary school (10th-12th grade).

613. The purpose of the reform was to improve scholastic achievements and encourage social integration of various sectors of society. At the same time, the period of compulsory education (which used to be 9 years - from compulsory kindergarten to the 8th grade) was extended until the 10th grade (inclusive), bringing the total period compulsory education to 11 years. The reform was, and still is, being implemented slowly, and in 1996 27 per cent of the pupils were still attending schools according to the old system. In upper secondary education, pupils can choose between academic and technological/ vocational tracks. In any case, all tracks are generally available and accessible to all, and are free of charge.

Higher education

614. The higher education system in Israel comprises eight universities (including the Open University in Tel-Aviv). In addition, there are several other non-university institutions of higher education which award Bachelor's degrees in several specific areas only, such as business administration, law, technology, arts and crafts, and teacher training. The system also includes regional colleges which offer academic courses under the auspices and academic responsibility of the universities.

615. A recent feature of the higher education system in Israel is the establishment of general colleges providing a broad spectrum of degree programmes at the undergraduate level. These colleges are being established to meet the increasing demand for higher education which is expected to continue and grow in the first decade of the twenty-first century.

616. Admission to universities and colleges is based upon the high school matriculation certificate and the results of a psychometric examination, without any discrimination on grounds of religion, sex, nationality or any other consideration except academic achievements. Matriculation examinations are administered in Hebrew, Arabic, English, Russian, French and Amharic (Ethiopian), or in other languages if so required. Psychometric examinations are administered in the following languages: Hebrew, Arabic, English, Russian, French or Spanish.

617. University and college education is not free of charge. University tuition is determined in accordance with the decision of a public committee. At present the average undergraduate tuition fees is about 10,000 NIS (approximately $3,000) per annum and may be paid in advance or in instalments. There is a national network of assistance to students in need of aid for socio-economic reasons. This comes in addition to a wide range of public and private foundations that award grants, scholarships and loans. Colleges are considered private institutions and thus their tuition fees are determined by market forces.

Adult education

618. Adult education plays an important role in the educational process. It offers programmes targeted to all population sectors for continuing primary, secondary, pre-academic (university preparatory programmes) and academic education. Furthermore, in Israel, adult education has a special importance since Israel is an immigrant country, absorbing immigration from all parts of the world. Hence, special language and cultural studies are given in new immigrants' schools. All of these activities are carried out by the Ministry of Education, as well as by a wide range of non-governmental organizations and institutions.

619. The objectives of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport in the area of adult education are:

- To inculcate the Hebrew language and its culture in new immigrants, and in particular, to divert specific resources for the absorption of Ethiopian immigrants in the area of language, culture and education within Israeli society.

- To narrow the educational gaps within the adult population in Israel; to expand the frameworks of primary and secondary education in all population sectors.

- To expand the knowledge and horizons of the adult student, and to provide him/her with opportunities to enrich the areas of his/her interest, inter alia, through the development of hobbies and creative talents.

- To provide tools for developing skills that will improve adults' functioning in their various roles within the family and community.

620. As a result of the availability of a complementary system of fundamental education, and due to the improved enforcement of the Compulsory Education Law, the number of persons with four or less years of formal education decreased among the non-Jewish population, from 28.9 per cent in 1980 to 15.9 per cent in 1994, while among the Jewish population, the numbers fell respectively from 10.3 per cent to 5.4 per cent.

Organizational difficulties in realizing the right to education

621. While virtually everyone within the eligible age group attends primary school, as far as secondary education is concerned, there is a drop-out problem, especially in the non-Jewish sector.

622. The policy of the Ministry of Education is to make every effort to prevent youth from dropping out and to raise the percentage of those attending school. The stated objective is that every boy and girl, except in extreme cases, shall complete 12 full years of schooling. Schools are obligated by the Ministry's policy to assist and encourage every pupil to continue his/her studies through 12th grade, despite the fact that school attendance is not compulsory over the age of 16.

623. In recent years, preventing pupils from dropping out of formal studies has become one of the primary tasks of the education system. Schools are required to refrain from past practices of abetting unwanted pupils to leave school. Instead, schools should try to increase the pupils' endeavours in their studies and do all that they can to prevent them from dropping out. To further advance this policy goal, financial incentives are given by the Ministry to schools that succeed in reducing drop-out rates.

624. In cases where placement in an alternative educational framework would be for the pupil's benefit, the school is instructed by the Ministry to assist him/her in finding the most suitable alternative educational framework.

625. One of the main factors which influences the extent of the drop-out phenomenon is the transition between different educational frameworks. The most problematic transitions are:

(a) From primary schools to lower secondary schools/four-year secondary schools;

(b) From lower secondary schools to upper secondary schools;

(c) Between classes in the upper secondary school.

626. One of the stated purposes of the 1968 reform was to postpone the transition from elementary school to high school from 8th to 9th grade.
With regard to higher education, budgetary difficulties prevent at present the granting of free education.

Statistical data

Literacy

627. The following tables introduce, in several disaggregated forms, the figures pertaining to the extent of formal education possessed by the adult population of Israel throughout the years 1961-1995. It divides the population by Jews and non-Jews, sex, age and country of origin. According to this data, in 1995 only 4 per cent of the total Israeli population lacked any formal primary education.

Persons aged 15 and over, by population group, years of schooling,
sex and age a/

Sex	Years of schooling								Total b/
and age	Median	16 +	13 - 15	11 - 12	9 - 10	5 - 8	1 - 4	0	Per centsThousands
	Jews
1961	8.4	3.6	6.3		34.6	35.4	7.5	12.6	100.0 1,300.9
1970	9.3	4.9	8.1		39.7	31.7	6.3	9.3	100.0 1,809.6
1975	10.3	7.0	10.7	26.1	18.8	25.5	4.3	7.6	100.0 2,708.2
1980	11.1	8.5	12.3	30.4	17.2	21.3	3.9	6.4	100.0 2,315.8
1985	11.5	10.2	14.2	33.6	16.6	17.3	3.1	5.0	100.0 2,511.3
1990	11.9	12.2	16.0	38.0	13.5	13.7	2.4	4.2	100.0 2,699.3
1993	12.0	13.8	18.5	39.3	13.0	11.6	2.1	3.7	100.0 3,102.9
1994	12.1	14.6	19.3	37.3	12.6	10.8	2.0	3.4	100.0 3,181.1

TOTAL - 1995
- Thousands		501.5662.6 1,198.5 387.5326.462.999.1100.0 3,269.3
- Per cents	12.2	15.520.537.012.010.11.93.1100.0
AGE
15 - 17	11.2	-0.555.142.71.3(0.3)(0.1)100.0 229.3
18 - 24	12.3	3.525.363.25.22.10.30.4100.0 532.1
25 - 34	12.9	22.026.641.06.52.60.40.9100.0 610.4
35 - 44	12.8	23.424.032.512.06.60.41.1100.0 613.6
45 - 54	12.8	24.622.127.111.611.51.1(2.0100.0 452.5
55 - 64	11.6	15.217.624.010.919.65.07.7100.0 335.5
65 +	9.6	9.512.918.712.928.77.010.3100.0 495.9
Men - total	12.3	17.418.838.012.69.71.81.7100.0 1,588.0
15 - 17	11.2	-(0.8)53.244.11.7(0.2)-100.0 118.0
18 - 24	12.2	4.221.464.16.92.6(0.4)(0.4)100.0 271.2
25 - 34	12.9	22.924.740.07.63.6(0.5)0.7100.0 307.9
35 - 44	12.8	25.521.832.512.46.60.40.8100.0 302.2
45 - 54	12.7	27.219.328.412.210.60.81.5100.0 219.8
55 - 64	11.9	19.416.725.210.320.44.43.6100.0 156.6
65 +	10.4	13.113.919.711.528.27.36.3100.0 212.2

	Jews
Women - total	12.2	13.6	22.0	36.2	11.4	10.4	2.1	4.3	100.0	1,681.3
15 - 17	11.3	-	(0.2)	57.2	41.2	(1.0)	(0.3)	(0.1)	100.0	111.4
18 - 24	12.4	2.9	29.4	62.0	3.4	1.6	(0.2)	(0.5)	100.0	260.8
25 - 34	13.0	21.1	28.5	42.1	5.3	1.6	(0.4)	1.0	100.0	302.5
35 - 44	12.8	21.4	26.0	32.7	11.5	6.5	(0.4)	1.5	100.0	311.4
45 - 54	12.8	22.1	24.8	26.1	10.9	12.2	1.4	2.5	100.0	232.6
55 - 64	11.3	11.5	18.4	22.9	11.3	19.0	5.5	11.3	100.0	178.8
65 +	9.1	6.8	12.1	17.9	13.9	29.3	6.7	13.3	100.0	283.8
	Arabs and others
1961	1.2	1.5			7.6	27.5	13.9	49.5	100.0	136.3
1970	5.0	(0.4)		1.7	13.0	35.1	13.7	36.1	100.0	223.2
1975	6.5	1.4	3.1	9.1	12.6	38.0	12.9	22.9	100.0	279.8
1980	7.5	2.2	5.5	13.5	16.0	33.9	10.0	18.9	100.0	344.5
1985	8.6	2.5	5.9	19.2	19.3	32.0	7.7	13.4	100.0	428.2
1990	9.0	3.0	6.1	23.2	17.4	30.8	6.5	13.0	100.0	502.0
1993	9.7	3.7	7.4	26.4	18.9	26.5	6.2	10.9	100.0	579.2
1994	10.0	4.3	8.4	27.8	18.4	25.1	5.9	10.0	100.0	607.9

TOTAL -
- Thousands		23.9	60.7	177.5	120.1	151.5	36.7	56.2	100.0	533.9
- Per cents	10.2	4.6	9.6	28.1	19.0	24.0	5.8	8.9	100.0
AGE
15 - 17	10.5	-	0.2	38.3	46.5	12.2	(1.0)	(1.8)	100.0	69.8
18 - 24	11.6	2.2	15.8	44.8	18.5	15.5	1.3	1.9	100.0	150.5
25 - 34	11.0	7.5	10.6	32.4	20.6	24.2	2.3	2.4	100.0	167.8
35 - 44	9.0	6.8	10.6	17.4	14.9	37.8	6.5	6.0	100.0	107.5
45 - 54	7.0	5.9	7.5	9.8	9.4	34.3	14.8	18.3	100.0	64.3
55 - 64	4.7	3.8	5.9	6.2	5.1	27.2	21.2	30.6	100.0	40.2
65 +	1.1	(1.5)	(2.4)	6.3	4.6	17.2	15.3	52.7	100.0	33.7
Men - total	10.6	5.9	9.4	30.6	20.6	24.4	5.0	4.1	100.0	315.7
15 - 17	10.5	-	(0.2)	37.1	46.4	13.4	(1.3)	(1.6)	100.0	35.7
18 - 24	11.6	2.2	15.6	45.0	20.3	14.9	(1.1)	(0.9)	100.0	76.4
25 - 34	11.3	9.1	9.3	37.1	21.2	20.8	(1.4)	(1.1)	100.0	83.9
35 - 44	10.2	9.7	11.0	21.8	17.8	33.2	3.4	3.1	100.0	53.2
45 - 54	8.1	8.9	7.9	10.6	12.5	44.3	10.7	5.1	100.0	32.1
55 - 64	6.5	(5.1)	(5.8)	8.8	(6.5)	37.8	23.0	13.0	100.0	19.5
65 +	3.5	(2.5)	(1.5)	(5.6)	(3.6)	27.7	24.5	34.6	100.0	14.9
Women - total	9.7	3.2	9.9	25.7	17.4	23.6	6.6	13.6	100.0	318.2
15 - 17	10.6	-	(0.2)	39.5	46.5	11.1	(0.7)	(2.0)	100.0	34.1
18 - 24	11.6	2.2	15.9	44.7	16.7	16.1	(1.5)	2.9	100.0	74.1
25 - 34	10.6	5.9	11.8	27.8	20.1	27.6	3.2	3.6	100.0	83.9
35 - 44	8.0	3.9	10.2	13.0	(12.0)	42.7	9.5	8.7	100.0	54.3
45 - 54	4.9	(2.9)	7	9.0	6.4	24.2	18.9	31.6	100.0	32.2
55 - 64	1.6	(2.5)	(6.1)	(3.8)	(3.8)	17.2	19.6	47.0	100.0	20.8
65 +	0.7	(0.6)	(3.0)	(6.8)	(5.4)	8.9	8.2	67.1	100.0	18.8

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics.

a/ Till 1985 - Persons aged 14 and over.

b/ Incl. Not known.

Attendance rates in the education system

628. The following tables reveal the gradual increase in the number of pupils in the Israeli education system. The first table shows the current number and rate of attendance in State schools. The second table presents the 1996 figures on the number of primary and secondary education pupils divided into four education sectors (the Jewish, Arab, Bedouin and Druze sectors). The third table reflects the increase in number of students in all educational institutions; the fourth table deals with primary and secondary education only, and illustrates the changes in number of Jewish and non-Jewish pupils in every school grade, throughout the years.

Number of students enrolled in 1996 in the pre-school,
primary and secondary education system and their
percentage in their total age group population:


Pre-school education	Primary education	Secondary education
Kindergartens (ages 2-5)	Primary School (Grades 1-8)	Lower Secondary (Grades 7-9)	Upper Secondary (Grades 9-12)
320,000	690,000	193,000	288,000
(90%)	(96%)		(90%)

	Free and compulsory education	Free education
ages 1-5	ages 5-16	ages 16-18

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport and the Central Bureau of Statistics.

629. The above figures do not include pupils attending Talmud-Torah (Orthodox Jewish) pre-schools, and institutions under the supervision of the Ministry of Religious Affairs and the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs (vocational and industrial schools).

Number of pupils in schools by sector and by level, 1996
(thousands of pupils)

Sector	Total	Primary education	Lower secondary education	Upper secondary education
Total	1 171	690	193	288
Jewish	938	540	152	246
Arab	169	108	28	33
Bedouin	36	26	6	4
Druze	28	16	7	5

* The figures in this table do not include kindergartens and higher education.

630. There are approximately 1,170,000 pupils in schools: about 80 per cent of them are in the Jewish sector, about 14 per cent are in the Arab sector, about 3 per cent in the Bedouin sector, and about 2 per cent in the Druze sector.

Pupils in educational institutions

	1995/96	1994/95	1979/80	1969/70	1959/60	1948/49
1. GRAND TOTAL (2 + 12)	1,721,303	1,684,456	1,200,638	823,491	578,003	140,817
Educational system (3 + 12)	1,656,247	1,592,465	1,156,636	797,191	567,051	140,817
Other institutions (11)	58,793	56,200	44,000	26,300	10,952
	Hebrew education
2. TOTAL (3 + 11)	1,451,939	1,428,882	1,023,410	711,954	531,923	129,688
3. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM TOTAL (4 through 10)	1,393,139	1,372,682	979,410	685,654	520,971	129,688
4. KINDERGARTENS a/	289,100	288,900	246,500	107,668	75,699	25,406
5. PRIMARY EDUCATION - TOTAL	540,821	540,254	436,387	394,354	375,054	91,133
Primary schools	528,429	527,328	424,173	375,534	357,644	91,133
Schools for handicapped children	12,392	12,926	12,214	18,820	17,410
POST-PRIMARY EDUCATION b/ - TOTAL (5+7)	391,794	384,328	216,602	137,344	55,142	10,218
6. Intermediate schools	150,804	142,750	72,792	7,908	-	-
7. Secondary schools - total	240,990	241,578	143,810	129,436	55,142	10,218
secondary one-track	118,044	123,790	91,138	98,591
secondary multi-track	122,946	117,788	52,672	30,845
Type of secondary education
General	122,283	121,385	61,583	63,731	32,894	7,168
Continuation classes	9,478	8,918	6,438	8,508	7,065	1,048
Technological/vocational	102,716	104,436	70,681	49,556	10,167	2,002
Agricultural	6,513	6,839	5,108	7,641	5,016
8. POST-SECONDARY INSTITUTIONS	46,514	42,548	25,341	11,894	5,801	1,295
9. NON UNIVERSITY INSTITUTIONS FOR HIGHER EDUCATION	23,210	19,402	-	-	-	-
10. UNIVERSITIES	101,700	97,250	54,480	35,374	9,275	1,635
11. OTHER INSTITUTIONS	58,800	56,200	44,000	26,300	10,952	-
for primary education c/	26,300	18,800	10,500	-	-	-
for post-primary education age d/	18,300	25,000	25,700	-	-	-
for post-secondary education age e/	14,200	12,400	7,800	-	-	-
	Arab education
12. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM - TOTAL (13 through 17)	269,364	255,574	177,225	110,537	46,080	11,129
13. KINDERGARTEN f/	26,100	26,100	17,344	14,211	7,274	1,214
14. PRIMARY EDUCATION - TOTAL	152,544	145,416	121,985	85,449	36,729	9,991
Primary schools	150,083	143,158	121,101	85,094	36,652	9,991
Schools for handicapped children	2,461	2,258	884	355	77	-

	1995/96	1994/95	1979/80	1969/70	1959/60	1948/49
POST-PRIMARY EDUCATION - TOTAL (15 + 16)	88,494	82,312	37,276	10,507	1,958	14
15. Intermediate schools	44,984	39,699	14,803	2,457	-	-
16. Secondary schools - total	43,510	42,613	22,473	8,050	1,958	14
Secondary one-track	15,929	19,277	17,373		1,958	14
Secondary multi-track	27,581	23,336	5,100		-	-
TYPE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
General	30,124	31,928	19,034	6,198	1,933	14
Technological/vocational	12,765	10,070	2,645	1,462	-	-
Agricultural	621	615	794	390	23	-
17. POST-SECONDARY INSTITUTIONS - TOTAL	2,226	1,746	621	370	121	-
Teacher training colleges	1,598	1,193	485	370	121	-
Other post-secondary institutions	628	553	136			-

Source: The Central Bureau of Statistics.
a/ Incl. an estimate of children aged 6 (about 4,100 in 1995/96) who attend kindergartens.
b/ Incl. also students in these institutions who study toward a first academic degree.
c/ Religious schools.
d/ Pupils in apprentices schools and in industrial schools of the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare and pupils in "Small Yeshivot".
e/ "Great Yeshivot".
f/ Compulsory only.

Pupils in primary and post-primary education, by grade

	1995/96	1994/95	1989/90	1979/80	1969/70	1959/60	1948/49
GRAND TOTAL	1,173,663	1,152,310	1,006,935	812,250	603,716	461,491	108,131
	Hebrew education
VIII - total	76,598	77,780	72,394	54,212	49,570	38,431	7,335
Thereof: intermediate schools	50,395	49,518	42,562	25,047	2,279	-	-
Special primary classes of unspecified grade	3,287	3,506	3,088	2,013	4,087	3,381	-
IX - total	75,208	73,902	67,446	51,584	43,926	21,841	4,461
Thereof: intermediate schools	48,283	44,073	38,318	22,667	-	-	-
X	72,163	70,814	62,426	44,857	35,402	15,263	2,936
XI	69,712	70,862	57,654	37,211	28,902	10,707	1,896
XII - total	67,515	65,544	52,735	31,316	20,503	6,581	925
Thereof: in secondary (1) general	35,279	34,227	25,956	14,557	13,363	4,256
XIII	3,468	3,479	2,456	1,155	435	-	-
XIV	1,207	1,050	740	354	268	-	-
	Arab education
Total	241,038	227,728	207,807	159,261	72,018	31,905	6,780
I	27,070	23,668	20,611	18,931	11,328	6,219	2,012
II	23,943	22,585	19,549	18,448	10,927	5,403	1,346
III	23,142	22,556	19,674	17,879	9,639	5,081	1,179
IV	23,239	21,611	19,314	17,634	8,972	3,921	959
V	22,010	22,082	20,303	16,651	8,314	2,860	608

	1995/96	1994/95	1989/90	1979/80	1969/70	1959/60	1948/49
VI	22,524	21,270	20,521	15,065	7,036	2,802	375
VII - total	21,005	19,738	19,962	14,280	5,981	2,679	231
Thereof: intermediate schools	16,082	14,220	10,103	5,383	466	-	-
VIII - total	20,875	19,480	19,556	13,582	4,679	1,888	56
Thereof: intermediate schools	15,640	13,717	10,208	5,151	321	-	-
Special primary classes of unspecified grade	458	363	20	49	50	23	-
IX - total	18,818	16,725	16,639	8,748	2,491	465	14
Thereof: intermediate schools	14,080	11,762	8,617	4,269	-	-	-
X	14,296	14,687	13,066	7,067	1,224	209	-
XI	12,211	12,001	9,984	4,633	842	186	-
XII - total	11,286	10,795	8,550	3,743	535	139	-
Thereof: in secondary general	8,193	8,100	6,575	3,171	469	139	-
XIII	161	167	58	-	-	-	-
Source: The Central Bureau of Statistics.
(1) Excl. pupils in continuation classes (2,543 in 1994/95 and 2,836 in 1995/96).

Adult education

631. The first of the following tables illustrates the number of adults engaged in elementary/remedial education (primary and secondary), pre-academic and academic special adults' programmes and immigrant absorption programmes. The second table shows the annual growth in the number of adults who complete their primary and secondary education.

Participation in adult education

	Pre-Academic Preparatory Programmes	Immigrant Absorption Programmes	Primary Education	Secondary Education	Popular Universities
1990	6 001
1991	6 784	138,152			19,276
1992	7 669	116,985	6,300	5,800	20,190
1993	7 789	77,871	6,950	6,300	23,368
1994	7 807	64,304	7,900	8,600	28,684
1995	8 588	67,304	9,500	10,500	31,349
1996 (forecast)		68,000		11,000

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics and the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport.

632. The increase in number of participants in elementary Hebrew language class programmes during the early 1990s is due to the dramatic influx of immigrants from the former Soviet Union to Israel in that period.

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport.

Higher Education

633. The following tables show the number of students in higher education institutions, and their disaggregation by degree, field study, sex, age, population group and origin.

Number of Students in Institutions of Higher Education

	1990	1994	1995	1996	1997
Total Students	76,000	108,300	116,000	123,000	135,000
Students in Colleges	8,300	16,800	19,400	28,000	36,500
Students in Universities	67,700	91,500	96,600	95,000	98,500

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics.

634. By the year 2000, an increase of 16 per cent over 1995 is expected in the number of students in institutions of higher education. Most of the increase is expected to be in enrolment to colleges.

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Students in universities, by degree, field of study, sex, age, group and origin

Per cents

1992/93

	Engineering and architecture	Agricultur e	Sciences and mathematics	Medicine a/	Law	Social sciences	Humanities	Total	1989/90	1984/85	1974/75
FIRST DEGREE - TOTAL	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0
Thereof: women	18.2	41.2	44.3	71.4	46.6	55.9	74.0	54.0	51.3	48.3	44.8
Age
Up to 19	12.4	2.3	13.0	8.4	7.2	4.6	5.4	7.6	7.3	6.4	6.9
20 - 21	17.4	7.5	24.3	20.4	19.6	17.4	18.7	19.0	17.6	16.6	23.5
22 - 24	36.1	44.8	43.1	45.6	44.2	46.4	39.5	42.2	39.8	37.2	41.3
25 - 29	30.4	39.5	17.3	17.5	23.7	22.0	20.9	22.2	24.5	24.7	18.2
30 - 34	2.8	4.6	1.6	3.0	2.6	3.8	5.3	3.7	5.1	7.2	4.0
35 +	0.8	1.3	0.7	5.0	2.4	5.9	10.1	5.3	5.7	7.9	6.0
Population group
Jews	95.1	98.3	91.8	92.5	94.0	96.1	91.9	93.8	93.3	92.1	96.5
Arabs & Others	4.9	1.7	8.2	7.5	8.0	3.9	8.1	6.2	6.7	7.9	3.5
ORIGIN (OF JEWS) - TOTAL	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0
Israel	31.5	43.7	30.0	31.5	39.1	32.6	29.0	31.5	28.8	19.2	7.9
Asia - Africa	23.0	17.4	20.7	20.1	19.5	28..4	31.8	26.3	27.9	27.1	18.3
Europe - America	45.5	38.9	49.3	48.4	41.4	39.0	39.2	42.3	43.3	53.7	73.8
SECOND DEGREE - TOTAL	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0
Thereof: women	21.7	46.8	48.7	49.8	38.4	52.9	73.7	53.5	50.3	46.8	35.2

Age
Up to 24	11.611.928.925.615.49.26.613.213.612.422.8
25 - 29	51.751.353.246.546.848.228.644.144.1 42.052.2
30 - 34	22.316.412.513.921.419.617.117.719.421.811.2
35 - 44	12.016.74.610.513.417.327.817.118.316.7
45 +	2.33.80.83.53.05.619.97.94.67.113.8
Population group
Jews	98.297.596.994.697.098.496.297.296.796.898.7
Arabs & Others	1.82.53.15.43.01.63.82.83.33.21.3

(continued)

1992/93

	Engineering and architecture	Agriculture	Sciences and mathematics	Medicine a/	Law	Social sciences	Humanities	Total	1989/90	1984/85	1974/75
ORIGIN (OF JEWS) - TOTAL	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0
Israel	23.8	31.4	29.7	26.3	32.5	29.0	22.7	27.0	22.9	13.1	6.4
Asia - Africa	20.5	20.4	18.3	18.9	18.1	24.4	25.2	22.3	19.9	16.5	11.2
Europe - America	56.8	48.2	52.0	56.8	49.4	46.6	52.1	50.8	57.2	70.4	82.4
THIRD DEGREE - TOTAL	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0		100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0
Thereof: women	21.0	42.9	41.3	65.4		46.1	54.4	43.8	41.3	39.7	25.9
Age
Up to 29	23.2	25.0	40.9	29.6		13.0	7.0	26.6	25.6	21.6	48.2
30 - 34	42.2	28.7	39.2	27.3		26.0	17.6	32.0	35.1	32.6	25.4
35 - 44	29.6	26.7	16.2	30.1		43.1	40.5	28.0	29.0	31.8
45 +	5.0	9.6	3.7	13.0		17.9	34.9	13.4	10.3	14.0	26.4
Population group
Jews	97.2	94.1	96.2	88.6		98.2	97.0	96.3	96.1	97.3	99.7
Arabs & Others	2.8	5.9	3.6	11.4		1.8	3.0	3.7	3.9	2.7	0.3
ORIGIN (OF JEWS) – TOTAL	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0
Israel	16.2	21.4	25.7	19.8		18.7	16.3	21.7	17.1	9.1	4.6
Asia – Africa	14.7	16.4	14.0	16.7		12.6	14.2	14.5	15.5	12.5	9.5
Europe – America	69.1	62.2	60.3	61.5		68.6	69.5	63.9	67.4	78.4	85.9
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics.
a/ Incl. paramedical courses.

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635. The next table illustrates the increase over time in the percentage of Israelis with higher education.

Persons with higher education among the general population (13 years or more of schooling)

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics.

636. The number of persons with higher education among the Jewish population grew between 1980 and 1995 by about 63 per cent (from 20.8 per cent to 33.9 per cent); among the non-Jewish population, the number of persons with higher education grew about 65 per cent (from 7.7 per cent to 12.7 per cent).

Drop-out rates

637. The following data shows the scope of the problem of drop-outs and the continuing trend of reduction in the size of this phenomenon:

Number of children and youth not attending school
(Ages 6-17)
Children and youth

	1992	1993	1994	1995
Total	52 260	42 300	37 000	30 000

Percentage of children and youth not attending school

	1992	1993	1994	1995
Percentage	4.5%	3.6%	3.1%	2.5%

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport, based on Central Bureau of Statistics Data.
Attendance of 14-17 year olds in the Jewish education system - percentages

	1980	1985	1990	1994
Total	79.5	86.9	90.5	94.4
Boys	72.9	80.7	85.5	90.9
Girls	86.5	93.7	95.7	98.1

14-17 year olds in Arab education - percentages

	1980	1985	1990	1994
Total	51.3	62.1	62.8	66.4
Boys	58.0	65.6	66.4	65.2
Girls	44.0	58.1	58.9	67.5

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics.

* These figures relate only to pupils in institutions under the supervision of the Ministry of Education. If data from the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs and the Ministry of Religious Affairs are added, the attendance rates will be higher.

Annual drop-out rates for pupils in upper secondary education

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics.
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Pupils in grades IX-XII by grade and school leaving

	1994/95-1995/96		1993/94-1994/951991/92-1992/93
	IX-XII		IX-XIIX-XIIX-XI
	Per cent	Absolute numbers	Per centAbsolute numbersPer centAbsolute numbersPer centAbsolute numbers
GRAND TOTAL	100.0	290 578	100.0212 716100.0210 834100.0207 429
Did not leave school	91.5	265 925	88.6188 42887.3183 98586.6179 634
Left school - total	8.5	24 653	11.424 28812.826 84913.427 795
Left the educational system (dropped out)	5.2	14 574	7.114 3848.016 8017.615 743
Dropped out
at the end of school year	3.6	10 553	5.0 10 5535.912 3425.812 048
during the school year	1.4	4 021	1.83 8312.14 4591.83 695
Left for another school	3.5	10 079	4.79 9044.810 0485.812 052
	Hebrew education
TOTAL	100.0	248 917	100.0181 575100.0179 415100.0178 122
Did not leave school	91.7	228 210	88.8161 16287.7157 43287.2155 264
Left school - total	8.3	20 707	11.220 41312.221 98312.822 858
Left the educational system (dropped out)	4.7	11 137	6.411 0126.912 3976.711 926
Dropped out
at the end of school year	3.3	8 086	4.58 0865.08 9375.08 938
during the school year	1.2	3 051	1.62 9261.93 4601.72 988
Left for another school	3.8	9 570	5.29 4015.39 5866.110 932
	Arab education
TOTAL	100.0	41 661	100.031 141100.031 419100.029 307
Did not leave school	90.5	37 715	87.627 26884.526 55383.224 370
Left school - total	9.5	3 945	12.43 87515.54 86616.84 937
Left the educational system (dropped out)	8.3	3 437	11.03 37214.04 40413.03 817
Dropped out
at the end of school year	5.9	2 467	7.92 46710.83 40510.83 110
during the school year	2.3	970	2.99053.29992.4707
Left for another school	1.2	509	1.65031.54623.81 120

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics.
E/1990/5/Add.39
page 1
E/1990/5/Add.39
page 1
638. The total effect of these figures shows a clear trend of constant increase in the percentage of adolescent pupils who remain in school and a matching decrease in drop-out rates. This trend can be seen both in Jewish and Arab education sectors, and among both boys and girls. Since the 1990s, in both Jewish and Arab education sectors, the percentage of attendance among female pupils has been higher than that of male pupils every year.

Graduating rates at all levels

639. The following tables show the percentage of pupils entitled to matriculation certificates upon their graduation from high school and the ratio between those examinees who meet the requirements for matriculation certificate and those who do not (disaggregated into Jews and non-Jews, sex and type of school):

Percentage of matriculation candidates (age 17 in the population)

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport.

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport,
Economics and Statistics Division Examination Information
Centre of the Examinations Division and the Senior Division
of Information System.

* Age 17 in the population.

640. The graph shows that over the years there has been an increase in the percentage of those who are entitled to matriculation certificates in the age group, primarily in recent years.
Examinees in matriculation exams by qualification for certificate and various characteristics

EXAMINEES IN MATRICULATION EXAMS BY QUALIFICATION

FOR CERTIFICATE AND VARIOUS CHARACTERISTICS

Examinees

Not entitledEntitledTotalNot entitledEntitledTotal

Per centAbsolute numbers

Grand total

198739.660.4100.014 91722 74037 657

199136.064.0100.016 64829 57746 225

199237.562.5100.018 64031 00549 645

199339.960.1100.022 07333 20055 273

199441.158.9100.024 95435 76560 719

199534.165.9100.019 972 38 566 a/ 58 538

Hebrew education

198737.262.8100.012 09420 38932 483

199132.767.3100.012 79226 36239 154

199235.364.7100.015 03327 60542 638

199337.362.7100.017 65729 66847 325

199438.561.5100.020 08832 13552 223

199531.168.9100.015 47734 33149 808

Track

General25.474.6100.09 16226 85236 014

Technological45.854.2100.0 6 315 b/ 7 47913 794

Sex c/

Boys33.166.9100.07 51715 19622 713

Girls29.470.6100.07 87718 95726 834

Origin c/

Israel28.471.6100.05 31713 43318 750

Asia-Africa39.460.6100.06 0949 35615 450

Europe-America25.674.4100.03 81811 10514 923

Arab education

198754.645.4100.02 8232 3515 174

199154.545.5100.03 8563 2157 071

199251.548.5100.03 6073 4007 007

199355.644.4100.04 4163 5327 948

199457.142.9100.04 8463 6408 486

199551.648.5100.04 4954 2358 730

Track

General47.952.1100.03 4453 7547 199

Technological68.631.4100.0 1 050 d/4811 531

Sex e/2 204

Boys53.646.4100.02 2891 9084 112

Girls49.650.4100.02 3274 616

Religion e/3 407

Muslims55.045.0100.04872 7876 194

Christians38.361.7100.05917841 271

Druzi47.552.5100.06521 243

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics.
a/ In addition in 1995, 1,456 were entitled to external matriculation certificates.
b/ In the technological track 2,392 examinees received a technological certificate without a matriculation certificate.
c/ The total only include a number of examinees whose sex and/or origin are not known.
d/ In the technological track 291 examinees received a technological certificate without a matriculation certificate.
e/ The total only includes a number of examinees whose sex and/or religion are not known.

641. The next tables include statistics on graduating students in Israel's universities, in the Open University (a distance-learning institution), non-university high education institutions and teachers' training colleges:

RECIPIENTS OF DEGREES FROM UNIVERSITIES, BY DEGREE, FIELD OF STUDY AND INSTITUTION

Annual per cent change (1)

1994/951989/901979/801994/951993/941989/901979/801969/70

1989/901979/801970/71

All degrees recipients

TOTAL

- Absolute numbers5.74.05.318 33916 13913 9159 3715 566

- Per cent100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

Thereof: women7.45.27.154.754.650.545.138.1

Degree

First degree5.25.25.271.771.873.272.073.0

Second degree6.25.47.420.519.720.017.614.5

Third degree5.21.84.73.23.43.24.04.3

Diploma11.7-2.22.84.65.13.56.48.2

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics.

	RECIPIENTS OF FIRST DEGREE FROM THE OPEN UNIVERSITY BY SEX AND FIELD BY SEX AND OF STUDY
	1994/951993/941992/931991/921990/911989/901988/891987/881984/851982/83
TOTAL	65061540535033930428119410141
Men	270275185196178154153906428
Women	3803402201541611501281043713

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics.

FIRST DEGREE STUDENTS IN HIGHER NON-UNIVERSITY INSTITUTIONS FOR
HIGHER EDUCATION BY FIELD OF STUDY, YEAR OF STUDY AND SEX

Field of study1994/951993/941990/911989/901988/891986/871984/851979/80

TOTAL3 4762 6581 2331 055953662457197

Technology sciences a/14112017814011212012730

Economics and business administration (1)584657100981246150-

Arts and design a/31830122216220517014192

Law253171------

Teaching - total a/2 1771 40973365551231113975

Kindergarten3314------

For grades I-II3312068269738--

For grades III-VI5623399667409--

For grades VII-X6854552162012081278575

For all grades b/47835329927416012918-

Informal education55424044313836-

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics.

a/ See introduction.

b/ Including physical education, music and special education.

642. The following numbers relate to graduates receiving B.Ed. Degrees at teacher's training colleges:

1980 75 graduates

1983 127 graduates

1987 311 graduates

1990 655 graduates

1993 1,026 graduates

1994 1,409 graduates

Education budgets

643. As the following data illustrate, the amount of government resources spent on education is gradually increasing in absolute terms (exceeding the inflation rate in Israel), in expenditure per pupil, and as a percentage of the total State budget and the GNP:

National expenditure on education, by type of expenditure and main services (1971-1994)

	Grand total at current prices as per cent of GNP	Grand total
1970/71	7.4	4 017
1971/72	7.7	4 523
1972/73	7.5	4 860
1973/74	8.1	5 198
1974/75	7.8	5 450
(1) 1974/75	8.4	5 844
1975/76	8.0	5 873
1976/77	8.2	5 773
1977/78	8.5	5 936
1978/79	8.8	6 198
1979/80	8.6	6 279
1980/81	8.1	6 171
1981/82	8.1	6 336
1982/83	8.3	6 493
1983/84	8.0	6 641
1984/85	8.4	6 653
(1) 1984/85	9.2	7 661
1985/86	8.2	7 604
1986/87	8.4	7 830
1987/88	8.4	8 094
1988/89	8.6	8 304
1989/90	8.5	8 391
1990/91	8.6	8 820
Calendar years
1990	8.5	8 770
1991	8.5	9 321
1992	8.6	9 960
1993	8.9	10 492
1994	9.2	11 060

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics.National expenditure on education of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport, 1994-1996

Year Fixed amount (1995) Actual amount

1994 11.6 billion NIS 10.6 billion NIS
1995 13.8 billion NIS 13.8 billion NIS
1996 15.1 billion NIS 16.4 billion NIS

After discarding the effects of inflation.

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport.

644. The real increase in the education budget between 1994-1996 was 30 per cent; the nominal increase was 55 per cent.

Note: 1995-1996 statistics are listed as estimates.

Source: Ministry of Finance.

645. This table clearly establishes a gradual increase since 1990 in the portion of the total budget allocated to education expenditures. The 1997 government expenditure on education represents 10 per cent of the overall government expenditures.

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics.
National Expenditure
Public Expenditure

Construction of new schools

646. In recent years, the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport has allocated special budgets for building new schools, and expanding and renovating existing ones. In 1996, NIS 234 million ($66.8 million) were allocated for the construction of new schools and classrooms, 1,743 of which were built that year. The need for such intensive construction originates from absorbing the children of new immigrants into the education system, natural population increase, and the establishment of new neighbourhoods throughout the country.

647. In addition, in 1996, NIS 199 million ($56.8 million) were allocated for the continued construction of 1,168 classrooms; NIS 96 million ($27.4 million) were allocated for the renovation of school buildings (over 200 schools were renovated in 1996); NIS 28 million ($8 million) were allocated for the construction of school gyms; additional NIS 15 million ($4.3 million) were allocated for equipping new classrooms; NIS 16 million ($4.6 million) were allocated for the expansion of regional colleges; and NIS 21 million ($6 million) for fencing and protection of education institutions.

648. In 1996, priority in construction was accorded to confrontation-line localities (settlements near the borders), localities included in supportive-intervention programmes (mainly disadvantaged areas), and cities with a mixed population - especially Jerusalem.

649. The Vicinity of Schools: Under the Compulsory Education Law, the State must ensure that schooling facilities are available to students within their municipal district, and pupils must enrol in a recognized school in that same district. The State Education Law adds a further requirement - that enrolment be made at a school close to the pupil's residence.

650. Due to Israel's small size, an efficient transportation system and the large number and dispersion of schools, education institutions are available, by and large, to everyone within a relatively close vicinity, even in the more rural areas of the country.

Schooling schedules

651. In recent years, the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport has taken upon itself to establish an outline programme regulating the schooling schedules of the various components of the education system. An outline programme has been promulgated and implemented in kindergartens and secondary schools (lower and upper). In primary education, however, the organization of studies is in a transitional stage and has not yet been completed.

652. The following table relates to Programmes for Kindergartens:


Elements	Daily time (in minutes) in accordance with age
	2	-	6
Acquisition and consolidation of life skills and habits (including personal hygiene, care of clothes, and meals)	90	-	45
Free Play	90	-	60
Expression through materials	45	-	60
Planned social activity (free movement, using playground apparatus and movement lessons)	45	-	45
Directed learning activity	30	-	60
Total	330 (5.5 hours)	- -	330 (5.5 hours)

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport.

653. The programme contains six elements which are essential foundations in the work of all kindergartens. Their organization is flexible and adapted to the shared and differing needs of each child.

Primary education

654. The primary education system is currently in a transitional stage, in preparation for a reorganization of the structure of studies in primary schools. The main feature of the proposed change is striking a balance between the previously dominant approach, according to which a single discipline of teaching subjects in conformity with a predetermined schedule of hours is enforced, and a modern inter-disciplinary approach to teaching. According to the latter approach, schools enjoy a greater degree of discretion and the Ministry's role is limited to setting guidelines.

655. It is the current policy of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport to encourage school autonomy in establishing the schedule of hours and deciding the curriculum. However, such autonomy is subject to the requirements of the State Education Law 1953 (which mandates a six day school week, unless the Minister of Education determines otherwise), and of the Long School Day Law 1990 (which mandates an eight-hour school day, unless the Minister of Education determines otherwise). Furthermore, Ministry-issued guidelines as to the percentage of hours given to certain topics (e.g., mathematics, language skills, science, human studies, etc.) must be followed.

656. It is estimated that at present only about a third of the primary schools in Israel enjoy an autonomy along the above described lines.

Secondary education

657. The following tables are the official schedule of hours to be followed by the secondary schools in Israel, divided into lower and upper secondary schools and by education sector. The total numbers of hours appearing in these tables under the term "Weekly hours" is the aggregate number of standard hours throughout all grades represented in each schedule.

Schedule of hours in Lower Secondary School
in Hebrew education (7th-9th grades)

Subjects/Fields	Weekly hours: State education	Weekly hours: State religious education
Hebrew	12	11
English	11	11
Arabic/French	9	9
Mathematics	14	14
Science and technology	18	15 a/
Bible	14	12
Oral Law and Judaism		12-14
History, Geography, humanistic and social studies	16	12
Arts	4	3
Education and civics (individual and society)	7	7
Physical education	6	3-5
TOTAL	111	111
Yeshiva and ulpana b/ track: Advanced Oral Law and elective programmes		(2 additional weekly hours)

/ In State religious education, the subject "Science and technology" will be taught for 18 hours, as in State education. The necessary addition of hours for this purpose will not be allocated as part of the hour framework assigned to lower secondary schools.

/ Intensive religious school for girls.

Schedule of hours in Lower Secondary School in Arab and Druze education (7th-9th grades)

Subjects/Fields	Weekly hours
Arabic	15
English	12
Hebrew	12
Mathematics	14
Science and technology	18
Arab culture or Islam or Christianity or Druze heritage	7
History, geography, humanistic and social studies	16
Arts	4
Education and civics (individual and society)	7
Physical education	6
TOTAL	111

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport.

Schedule of hours in Upper Secondary School in Jewish education (10th-12th grades)

Field

Number of hours per pupil

Hebrew education	State education	State religious education
Hebrew	12	11
English a/	9-11	9-11
Arabic a/	3	3
Mathematics	9	9
Natural Sciences/technology b/	8	8
Bible and Jewish Studies	9	20-26
History, Geography, humanistic and social studies	8	8
Elective subject	6	6
Education and civics	7	7
Essay-writing workshop c/	2	2
Physical education	6	6

Basket of hours for intensive and expanded study	26.28	32.34	16-24	24-32
TOTAL	107 c/	113	113	121
	General	Technology	General	Technology

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport

a/ French may be substituted for English as the first foreign language or for Arabic as a second foreign language. Children born abroad may substitute their mother tongue as the second foreign language.

b/ In rural schools, the study of "life and agricultural sciences" is compulsory.

c/ In the technological track, the hours allotted for the composition workshop may be used for the study of technological subjects.

Schedule of hours in Upper Secondary School in Arab
and Druze education (10th-12th grades)

Field	Number of hours per pupil
Arabic	12
English	9-11
Hebrew	9
Mathematics	9
Natural sciences/technology	8
Arab culture or Islam or Christianity of Druze heritage	3-4
History, humanities and social studies	8
Elective subject	6
Education and citizenship	7
Essay-writing workshop a/	2
Physical education	6

Basket of hours for intensive and expanded study	25-28	31-34
TOTAL	107	133
	General	Technology

a/ In the technological track, the hours allocated to the composition workshop may be used for the study of technological subjects.

Equal educational opportunities

Ratio of males to females in the education system

658. Whereas in primary education, there is almost universal attendance by the relevant age group, in secondary education, there is a problem of drop-outs. Dropping out is more common with boys, and consequently, the ratio of males to females in secondary education tilts slightly in favour of the latter. The percentage of entitlement to matriculation certificate is also higher amongst female pupils than male pupils (52 per cent in comparison with 41 per cent in 1994/5).

Pupils in schools by type of school, age and sex

Rates per 1000 in respective group of population

Age

	17	16	15	14	14-17	6-13
					Girls	BoysTotal
1993/94	799	865	921	945	920	856885956
	Hebrew education
1969/70	438	603	742	910	707	631668984
1979/80	625	743	856	946	865	729795967
1989/90	827	884	929	966	957	855905958
1993/94	866	930	978	998	981	909944955
1994/95 Total	885	943		995	996	926959955
Primary education	7	10	13	65	23	2825813
Post-primary education
Intermediate schools	-	-	124	582	177	180178138
Secondary schools - total	878	933	873	348	796	7187564
General (2)	463	484	458	182	459	3363963
Technological/vocational and agricultural	415	449	415	166	337	3823601
	Arab education
1993/94	525	603	705	742	675	652664958
1994/95 Total					592	657673958
Primary education	-	-	-	-	19	2220821
Post-primary education
Intermediate schools	-	-	81	559	153	163158136
Secondary schools - total	544	590	643	196	520	4724951
General (2)	402	431	473	176	404	3413721
Technological/vocational and agricultural	142	159	170	20	115	131123-

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics.

659. In institutions of higher education, there are, today, more women than men studying for their Bachelor's and Master's degrees. However, a greater proportion of men is enrolled in doctoral programmes.

Students in post-secondary non-university institutions
by field of study, sex and age a/


Year of study, sex and age	Field of study
	Other	Arts, design and architect ure	Clerical work, law, administrati on, economics etc.	Paramedica l occupation s	Qualifie d nurses	Practical engineerin g, technical work etc.	Teacher training	Total
1970/71	1 265	876	1 364	600	1,177	4 793	5 442	15 517
1974/75	1 801	1 835	2 353	607	1 219	7 355	11 057	26 227
1979/80	1 737	1 375	2 176	475	1 961	7 857	11 770	27 351
1984/85	874	1 003	2 384	748	1 567	13 288	11 872	31 736
1989/90	807	1 503	1 944	742	1 273	10 747	8 291	25 307
1992/93	1 219	1 248	4 714	812	1 363	14 538	11 689	35 583
1994/95	1 339	4 541	6 905	738	1 334	18 245	9 446	42 548
1995/96	1 179	5 197	7 720	621	1 668	19 310	10 819	46 514
GRAND TOTAL
Hebrew education -total	1 163	5 197	1 687	621	1 668	18 661	10 312	45 309
Year of study
I	71	2 956	5 713	308	873	11 251	3 352	25 164
II	426	1 565	1 717	156	480	6 645	3 173	14 162
III	26	514	257	116	244	577	3 053	4 787
IV	-	162	-	41	71	188	734	1 196
Sex
Men	521	1 296	3 628	238	170	13 406	1 950	21 209
Women	642	3 901	4 059	383	1 498	5 255	8 362	24 100
Age
Up to 24	498	2 616	2 995	409	851	13 092	7 584	28 045
25-29	248	1 806	2 388	122	375	3 613	1 321	9 873
30 and over	417	775	2 304	90	442	1 956	1 407	7 391
Arab education	16	-	33	-	-	649	507	1 205

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics.

a/ Excl. students studying towards a first degree in non-university institutions for higher education.

Weak and disadvantaged population groups

660. Since the education laws equally apply to every child and adolescent in Israel, without any discrimination, the right to education belongs to everyone. Furthermore, under Israeli administrative law the education authorities (as any other governmental authority) may not adopt discriminatory policies. However, in practice, certain population groups are found to be in a disadvantageous position and special efforts have been made by the authorities to foster and support their education.

General programmes of assistance

661. The activities of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport, directed to help pupils of all sectors of the population, focus upon two target groups: "pupils with potential" - 12th grade students who complete their education without a matriculation certificate but have the potential to achieve one; and "pupils at risk" - pupils who might drop out, have done so already, or are exposed to other risks.

662. The following programmes are employed to help "pupils with a potential":

(a) Maavar ("Moving on")

This is a programme designed to promote pupils to go from partial to full matriculation. It offers classes in the framework of an upper-secondary school. In 1996, approximately 10,000 pupils attended this programme.

(b) Tahal ("Second Chance")

This matriculation completion programme is offered to pupils who attended the 12th grade in a matriculation track, but failed to take or pass between one and three different curriculum subjects necessary for the completion their matriculation certificate. Pupils are given intensive courses on different curriculum subjects (and receive a deferment of their military service). In 1996, about 2,530 pupils participated in this programme.

(c) Pre-academic preparatory programmes

This track provides demobilized soldiers another chance to complete their matriculation certificates and helps them improve their chances of admission into higher education institutions. About 10,000 pupils studied in such programmes in 1996.

(d) Michael ("Utilizing Personal Skills for Excellence")

This programme offers assistance to 10th and 11th grade pupils in development towns (often areas with difficult socio-economic conditions), and other disadvantaged areas in studying for the matriculation examinations. In 1996, approximately 6,000 pupils attended this programme.

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport.

* The figures for the pre-academic programmes do not include pupils studying in external schools under the terms of the Demobilized Soldiers Act (1984). From 1995, however, these figures do include pupils in external schools as part of the matriculation completion project (i.e. pupils who lack just one examination).

663. The following programmes and measures are employed to help "pupils at risk":

(a) Programmes of preventive intervention and assistance intended to combat the phenomenon of dropping-out have been operating in 1996 in 110 schools.

(b) Truant officers locate and work with drop-outs. In 1996, 11,000 drop-outs were reached by these activities.

(c) Special activities have been undertaken to help reintegration of drop-outs in schools.

(d) "Children's home" programmes and afternoon-care centres give pupils a place to stay after school hours, until the evening. In 1996 about 500 such programmes and centres were serving approximately 8,000 children.

(e) Differential benefits programme - schools who are successful in preventing drop-outs and increasing the number of pupils taking the matriculation exams and the number of pupils who are eventually entitled to receive matriculation certificates receive special financial benefits from the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport.

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport.

Expansion of after-school "children's home" programmes
and day-care centres

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport.

Specific programmes of assistance offered to specified population
groups

664. Children with learning disabilities: As mentioned above, a special education system exists alongside the regular system, which is available for pupils aged 3-21. In recent years there has been an increase in the resources allocated to special education and in the 1996 budget the amount reached a record NIS 1.2 billion ($34.3 million). It thus became possible to extend the application of the law to age groups 3-5 and 18-21 prior to the originally estimated date. Furthermore, pupils with serious disabilities were provided with longer school days and classes during ordinary school vacations.

665. It is however the goal of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport to encourage the integration of children with mild disabilities into the ordinary school system. Therefore, a special programme was initiated to teach teachers how to help pupils with disabilities and how to create a tolerant atmosphere towards them among the ordinary pupils. Moreover, a special differentiated curriculum is being developed to accommodate the needs of such disabled pupils.

666. In 1996, there were approximately 37,000 pupils aged 3-21 years in the various special education frameworks. In addition, about 40,000 more pupils were integrated in the regular school system, but received special assistance from special education resources. It should be noted that the percentage of all pupils in Israel enrolled in special education has declined in the last 10 years.

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport. Arab and Druze Sectors

667. The Arab and Druze pupils have achieved, on average, lower scores on past national assessment tests than their Jewish counterparts. Similarly, drop-out rates are higher in these sectors, and matriculation entitlement percentage is lower. This gap in educational achievements is attributed to inadequate channelling of resources to these sectors in the past, to socio-economic problems, and inferior infrastructure. Furthermore, teaching hours used to be fewer in these sectors in comparison with the Jewish sector, and teachers used to be less well-trained.

668. Determined to close this gap, the Ministry of Education in 1991 embarked on a five-year programme intended to equalize the educational and budgetary standards of these sectors to that of the Jewish education sector.

The special measures taken under the programme were as follows:

- Construction of classrooms;

- Adding classroom hours;

- Teacher training and in-service teacher training;

- Pedagogic assistance for teachers - teacher-trainers and pedagogic centres;

- Developing curricula and textbooks, and producing programmes for educational television;

- Nurturing gifted pupils

- Expanding the truant officers scheme and the psychological counselling and guidance services;

- Expanding activities to prevent dropping out;

- Significant expansion of special education;

- Expanding informal education

- Increasing budgets for culture and sport.

669. The five-year programme has been successful in narrowing the gaps between the Arab and Druze and the Jewish education systems, but has failed to close the gap altogether. It should be noted, however, that in one area -academization of teaching staff - the achievements in the Arab sector in upper secondary education have recently surpassed those of the Jewish sector.

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport.

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport.

New immigrants
670. Being an immigrant absorbing society, Israel's educational system faces the challenge of integrating immigrant pupils who do not know the language, and come from varying educational and cultural backgrounds. The education system offers such pupils additional teaching hours for up to the first three years (sometimes in their native language), and undertakes programmes to smooth the process of their integration.

671. In many cases, due to a lack of previous formal education, immigrants from Ethiopia face unique problems in their absorption in the education system. In order to address this special problem, the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport has established a special steering committee to focus on the integration of Ethiopian immigrant pupils. Half of the members of the steering committee are themselves Ethiopian immigrants.

672. Measures already taken by the Ministry in order to facilitate the integration of Ethiopian immigrants include supplementary after-school programmes and the allotment of additional teaching hours throughout their entire education. Special attention has been given to the problem of drop-outs among Ethiopian immigrants. The policies and programmes that have been implemented resulted in considerable success.
Specially targeted action
673. The Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport has identified over 30 municipalities facing special problems in terms of educational achievements, and has developed special programmes involving the participation of the local communities to improve the situation in those targeted towns and villages. The list of targeted municipalities includes Jewish, Arab, Druze, Bedouin and mixed settlements.

674. The following list relates to the geographical Dispersion of Targeted Localities:

Jerusalem
Beit Shemesh
Maale Adumim
Neve Yaakov
Pisgat Zeev
Haifa
Or Akiva
Gissar A-Zarka
Daliyat El-Carmel
Ussifiya
Tirat HaCarmel
Kiryat Yam
South
Ofakim
Beersheva
Yeroham
Mizpe Ramon
Netivot
Kiryat Gat
Tel Sheva

North
Bir El-Maksur
Beit Jan
Beit Shean
Hazor Haglilit
Tiberias
Yokneam
Maale Yosef
Marom Hagalil
Upper Nazareth
Acre
Afula
Kiyat Shemona
Shlome
Centre/Tel Aviv
Or yehuda
Bat Yam
Yehud
Rosh HaAyim
Ramla/Lod

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport.
Language facilities

675. The language used in the school system and teacher's training is either Hebrew (Jewish sector) or Arabic (Arab and Druze sectors). Some schools have started to offer special language where immigrant pupils are taught some of their courses in their native language.

676. In Arabic-speaking schools, pupils learn Hebrew and English as second and third languages, whereas in Hebrew-speaking schools, English and Arabic are taught as foreign languages. In some schools French is taught as a second language (instead of English or Arabic), and since 1997 other languages, such as Russian were introduced into the elective curriculum.

677. Adult new immigrants are offered basic Hebrew-language classes in new immigrant's schools especially created to teach elementary language skills. In 1996, 68,000 persons attended schools.

Conditions of teaching staff

678. There are approximately 80,000 full-time teachers in all levels of the Israeli primary and secondary system. The following table demonstrates their distribution to sectors and school levels:

Teaching posts (full-time) in schools, 1996

	Total	Hebrew education	Arab education
Total	79 010	66 050	12 960
Primary Education	39 920	32 600	7 320
Lower Secondary	14 380	11 740	2 640
Upper Secondary	24 710	21710	3 000

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport.

679. In addition there are about 22,000 part-time teachers in primary and secondary schools, and 50,000 teachers in kindergartens and other educational frameworks. It is the policy of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport to support the academization of teachers. Most teacher trainees now study toward an academic degree (B.Ed. or B.A.), and practising teachers are encouraged to get such a degree if they do not already have one. By virtue of this policy the percentage of academics among teachers has increased.

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport.

680. Another Ministry policy involves the goal of improving the status and social standing of teachers and educators. In this vein, a public campaign was launched in the media, under the slogan "A good teacher is a teacher for life". A special effort was made by the Ministry and teachers' associations to improve teachers' salaries. This effort resulted in a sharp increase in teachers' salaries between 1993-1996

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport.

681. Teachers' salaries are negotiated between the two teachers' associations and the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport. They are calculated in accordance with the individual teacher's formal education, length of service in the teaching force, amount of accumulated in-service teacher education, and non-teaching school positions by the teacher.

682. Hence, for example, in June 1996 a kindergarten teacher with 16 years of experience earned NIS 5,386 gross (about $1,800), a primary school teacher with 18 years of experience earned NIS 5,559 gross ($1,850), and a lower secondary school teachers with B.A. degree and 18 years of experience earned NIS 5,784 gross (about $1,930).

683. In 1995, pre-school teachers' average salary constituted over 97 per cent of the average salary in the State administration; primary school teachers earned on average 99 per cent of the average salary in the State administration; and secondary school teachers earned on average 103 per cent of the average salary in the State administration.

Responsibility for the establishment and administration of schools

684. Responsibility for the establishment and administration of schools within the framework of compulsory education is divided between the Ministry of Education and the local authorities. Other bodies that may be involved in the establishment and administration of upper secondary schools are public education networks and private bodies. However, the Ministry of Education is responsible for licensing and supervision of all such schools.

685. A distinction is made between State education, State-religious education, and independent, but recognized, educational institutions. The latter are also supported by the State and subject to supervision over their curricula, in accordance with the curriculum and degree of governmental involvement in their operation. There is an insignificant number of other private schools not included in one of these categories.

686. In order to establish a school, private or recognized, a permit needs to be requested from the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport. The School Inspection Law 1968 requires the Ministry to verify the preservation of adequate educational standards, and to consider the proposed curriculum, schooling schedule, school facilities, safety features, teaching equipment, available financial resources, the type of school and the ages and needs of potential pupils before granting permits.

687. There is no difficulty in moving from one type of school to another, and parents are free to choose the kind of school they wish to send their children to, as long as the school in question operates with State permission.

Article 15 - The right to take part in cultural life
and enjoy scientific progress

The right to take part in cultural life

Funding

688. As an indication of its commitment to the promotion of culture in Israel and to increase the people's participation in cultural life, the Government of Israel invests significant resources in culture-related activities, supporting directly and indirectly a wide range of both public and private cultural activities throughout the country.

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National expenditure on culture, recreation and sports and its financing, by sector, kind of expenditure and activity

At current prices

	Financing sector a/	Executive
	Thereof:	Government
	Deficit of non-profit institution s	Local authoritiesGovernment and national institutions Households Grand total BusinessPrivate non-profit institution s Non-profit institution s Local authoritiesGovernment and national institutions Grand total
	Per cents	NIS millionPer centsNIS million
1990 1991 1992 1993 1993 - GRAND TOTAL Current expenditure Cultural heritage Literature and printed matter Music and perfoming arts Visual arts Cinema and photography Radio and television Socio-cultural activities Sports and games Nature and the environment Gambling General administration on non-apportionable activities Fixed capital formation	-12.1 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.1 7.5 0.3 4.1 -4.6 0.2 - 5.7 0 2.6 - 4.8 13.7	15.2 16.2 14.1 13.7 11.8 22.2 8.0 0.8 20.3 1.0 - 39.5 11.5 44.9 - 71.4 0.17.3 6.4 6.5 6.4 5.3 28.4 3.7 3.8 - 1.2 - 23.0 4.4 1.7 - 5.7 55.089.6 75.9 77.7 77.9 80.8 41.9 88.0 91.4 84.4 97.6 100.0 31.9 84.1 50.7 100.0 18.1 31.3100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.05 221.8 6 602.0 8 084.0 9 890.6 9 458.7 228.8 769.6 2 307.9 84.4 573.2 1 759.2 1 058.4 1 223.8 735.4 619.6 98.3 431.965.2 65.2 66.6 67.9 69.0 71.9 9.7 83.5 84.8 62.1 98.8 100.0 - 70.2 29.6 100.0 - 010.4 10.5 10.3 9.8 9.4 9.4 35.0 3.2 11.0 5.3 0.4 - 16.4 14.8 24.8 - 19.2 5.78.2 8.4 8.8 8.5 8.1 7.6 46.3 1.6 3.9 32.5 0.3 - 40.0 5.1 1.5 - 12.8 10.614.0 14.1 12.4 12.0 11.7 9.7 8.2 10.1 0.4 - - - 33.4 8.6 44.1 - 66.4 70.02.2 1.8 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.4 0.9 1.5 - 0.2 0.5 - 10.3 1.3 0 - 1.6 13.7100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.05 221.8 6 602.0 8 084.6 9 890.6 12 054.5 11 586.0 269.4 820.3 2 736.0 98.3 605.0 2 454.0 1 257.5 1 429.2 865.3 913.0 118.0 488.6

/ 1993 is the last year for which there are detailed data on financing of national expenditure on culture, recreation and sports.

National expenditure on culture, recreation and sports, by kind of expenditure and activity


			Thereof:
	National expenditure on culture as a per cent of the GDP	Fixed capital formation	General administration and non-apportionable activities	Gambling	Nature and the environment	Sports and games	Socio-cultural activities	Radio and television, cinema and photography	Music and performing arts	Cultural heritage, literature and visual arts	Current expenditure -total	Grand total
	NIS million, in current prices
1994		488.6	118.0	913.0	865.3	1 429.2	1 257.5	3 059.4	2 736.0	1 188.0	11 566.4	12 054.9
	Per cents
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994	5.0 4.9 5.1 5.4 5.7	5.9 5.1 4.6 4.4 4.1	0.8 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.0	6.0 5.8 5.6 6.3 7.6	7.6 7.6 8.1 7.4 7.2	10.4 11.7 13.1 12.4 11.9	11.3 11.1 11.1 10.7 10.4	21.5 22.3 22.0 23.6 25.4	25.0 24.3 23.3 23.2 22.7	11.5 11.2 11.3 11.0 9.9	94.1 94.9 95.4 95.6 95.9	100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
	NIS million, in 1990 prices
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994		306.3 289.3 280.7 299.0 296.2	42.1 47.2 60.2 65.4 67.3	313.4 324.3 336.0 420.0 550.0	396.9 425.9 480.0 510.9 527.4	542.5 660.9 691.3 881.0 961.0	592.5 624.7 655.6 688.3 726.5	1 121.1 1 258.9 1 469.5 1 724.2 2 120.4	1 304.2 1 370.7 1 446.4 1 601.2 1 684.4	602.9 632.3 670.3 709.6 671.6	4 915.6 5 344.9 5 809.4 5 899.7 7 308.6	5 221.9 5 634.2 6 090.0 6 600.7 7 604.8

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689. The Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport which is responsible for promoting culture in Israel, gives direct financial assistance to some 300 cultural and art institutions, supports culture-related projects, sponsors initiatives in the area of culture, organizes cultural activities in various regions of the country intended for a variety of populations, encourages the artistic endeavours of amateurs, and helps cultural groups preserve their heritage and foster their culture. The Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport, in cooperation with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, also invests resources designed to promote cultural relations and exchanges between Israel and other countries. The Ministry's budget is presented in the following table.

Participation of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport
in the budgets of cultural institutions - 1997
(by 1997 budget, in thousands of NIS, and by per cent)

Field	Budget	Distribution by %
Total	445 398	100
Israel Association of Community Centers	124 354	28
Theatres	68 683	16
Music (orchestras, operas, choirs, institutions)	46 115	11
Museums, plastic arts	32 607	7
Orthodox Jewish cultural enterprises	27 718	6
Research institutes and cultural centres	23 278	5
Dance	14 910	3
Public libraries	14 867	3
Omanut l'Am ("Arts for the People" association)	13 764	3
Film	13 688	3
Corporations engaged in cultural activity	11 692	3
Schools of art	9 544	2
Literature journals	9 256	2
Torah culture projects	8 527	2
Festivals	8 283	2
Druze and Arab culture	4 789	1
Ethnic heritage	4 776	1
Cultural absorption and Israeli culture abroad	3 346	*
Public archives	1 703	*
Arts and crafts classes for amateurs	1 480	*
Jewish philosophy	969	*
Consulting, surveys and organization publications	853	*
Training administrators of cultural organizations	306	*

* Total of all the items marked with (*) amounts to 2 per cent of the budget.

690. One of the most important tools of cultural promotion in Israel are the 170 community centres throughout the country. These centres offer communities, especially those with weaker population concentrations, various cultural-related activities, such as art classes, dance troupes, choirs, theatre groups, etc. Reflective of the policy of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport to give high priority to community-oriented cultural activity is the fact that the largest item on the Ministry's culture budget is the financial support allocated to the Israeli Association of Community Centers, which is responsible for the establishment, supervision and support of the community centres.

691. Allocations for cultural institutions and projects are made objectively, based upon equal criteria, taking into consideration the nature and conditions of the activities, their qualitative scope and circumstances, as well as the special needs of each institution and project. Governmental support is offered either as grants or loans to organizers and producers of cultural events (e.g., public theatres, museums), or as a direct support of the individual artists engaged in the cultural activity.

692. The Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport offers several prizes as an additional method of supporting artists. They include a prize for painting and sculpture which is awarded every year to five artists (providing for their sustenance for a whole year), and prizes for young plastic artists and teachers, yearly grants for creativity to writers, poets, and translators. Financial support to cultural activities is also provided by municipal authorities, public and private foundations, private persons, endowments and corporations.

693. The municipalities invest part of their budget in improving cultural facilities, supporting local artists, and sponsoring communal cultural activities. The local authorities are often assisted by private contributions raised by private and public foundations (e.g., the Jerusalem Foundation, the Tel Aviv Foundation for Culture and Art, and the Haifa Development Foundation).

694. Several of the public foundations are financed by the Government (e.g., the Fund for Promotion of Israeli Quality Films and the New Fund for Documentary Films), thus reflecting further indirect investment in culture by the Government. Two important methods of support through public foundations are the Loan Fund for Producers, under which a government fund subsidizes interest on bank loans taken by private producers of artistic productions, and the Fund for the Promotion of Writers which supports writers in Israel according to the number of times their books have been borrowed from public libraries.

695. Foundations and contributors are often associated with major cultural institutions and bodies such as the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, Israel Museum and Tel Aviv Museum. Associations of friends of major cultural institutions make an important contribution through fund-raising activities inside and outside Israel, and by way of lobbying for public support.

696. A leading example of the involvement of private corporations in culture is Business for the Arts, a non-profit organization that forges links between the Israeli business community and various cultural and artistic enterprises on a "quid pro quo" basis - mainly by offering advertisement of sponsoring businesses (e.g., by way of an ad in a theatre programme). Banks and other business enterprises also serve as direct sponsors, on a regular basis, of activities in the field of art and culture.

697. A unique project, privately initiated, involves the Omanut l'Am (Arts for the People) association. The association has taken upon itself to provide residents of remote areas (outside the main cultural centres) with equal access to cultural and artistic activities. A further aim of Omanut l'Am is to promote art education and appreciation. It sponsors some 12,000 artistic activities annually in all areas of the arts, throughout the country. The association is also involved in cultural-related activities in schools. As indicated above, the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport directs significant budgetary resources to support the activities of Omanut l'Am.

698. A special Culture Administration was established within the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport to further support the proper functioning of art and cultural institutions in Israel, including the formulation of long- and short-term policy. The administration also deals with the promotion of amateur activities, absorbing of new immigrant artists, folklore and ethnic heritage, art festivals, and research and science institutes, such as the Academy of the Hebrew Language, the Ben-Gurion Heritage Institute in the Negev and the Yad Itzhak Ben-Zvi Institute for Eretz Israel Studies and Research.

699. Several consultative public councils operate in affiliation with the Culture Administration: the Public Council for Culture and Art,which is a general policy consultative council composed of public figures from the art community; the Public Council for the Promotion of Culture and Art in Neighborhoods and Development Towns contributes to activity among disadvantaged populations; and the Council for Public Libraries and the Council for Museums, both operating under the provisions of the public libraries and museums laws, respectively.
The institutional infrastructure of cultural life in Israel
700. Two laws have been legislated to regulate the operation of specific cultural institutions: the Public Libraries Law 1975 and the Museums Law 1983.

701. The Public Libraries Law defines the responsibility of the State to establish public libraries and specifies the conditions for according a library the status of a public library (thus making it eligible to receive public funds). There are some 950 public library facilities in Israel, as well as school libraries and other libraries throughout the country. Hence, in almost every city or town there is at least one public library. The libraries house books in Hebrew, English, Arabic, Russian, German, French, Spanish, Romanian and Hungarian. There are also some mobile libraries available, designed especially for the use of the members of the armed forces and to accommodate the residents of remote settlements and neighbourhoods.

702. The Museums Law determines the criteria for establishment and recognition of museums by the Museum Council, composed of public figures. Israel has 180 museums of various kinds: art, nature, science, archaeology, history, technology, and other themes.

703. Many other cultural institutions, while not regulated by law, are actively supported by the State:

704. Theatres - There are 21 established theatre groups in Israel performing in theatres around the country. The larger theatre groups are based in Tel Aviv, Haifa, Jerusalem and Beersheva. In addition, special theatre festivals are held annually throughout the country, most notable of which are the Acre Festival for Alternative Theater, the Teatronetto - festival of solo performances in Tel Aviv, and The Jerusalem Puppet Theater. Besides professional theatrical activities, there are several informal community theatres performing in local community centres. In addition to Hebrew-language theatre, there are also theatre groups regularly performing in Arabic, Russian, Yiddish and English.

705. Music - There are some 50 music-oriented organizations in Israel, including 17 orchestras, The Israel Opera, 10 choirs, and various music schools. The Israel Philharmonic Orchestra is counted among the world's best symphony orchestras. At least one concert hall can be found in almost every major town in Israel, hosting various musical performances. In addition, many musical events are held outdoors. Examples of annual music festivals are the Abu Gosh Vocal Music Festival, the Zimria (folk singing festival), the Arad Israeli Pop Music Festival, the Eilat Jazz Festival, and the Rubinstein International Competition for Pianists.

706. The plastic arts - A great number of unique institutions, associations and projects operate throughout the country (e.g., the Ceramic Artists Association, the Association for Jewish Art, professional associations for design, etc.). Art exhibitions are presented in a large number of museums, public and private art galleries, and in private workshops and homes in every part of the country.

707. Films - In recent years, approximately 10 feature films and 30 documentary films are produced in Israel every year. Domestic and foreign films are screened in a large number of cinemas throughout the country. Classic films are being re-screened in the three Cinemateques operating in Tel Aviv, Jerusalem and Haifa. In addition, international film festivals are held annually in Jerusalem and Haifa. Film-making is taught at the universities and in several film schools.

708. Literature - Some 20 literary periodicals are published every year and some 15 similar literary projects exist, organized by various organizations such as the Association of Hebrew Writers and the Association of Writers. In addition, all major newspapers carry a special weekly section on literature and poetry. Books are readily available in the many book stores and public libraries throughout the country. "Hebrew Book Week", a book fair held in every city, is a popular annual event. Moreover, international book fairs held in Israel, such as the Jerusalem International Book Fair, are also open to the public.

709. Museums such as Beit HaSofer and Beit Agnon in Jerusalem, and Beit Bialik in Tel Aviv host a variety of literary activities, and offer the public information and exhibits on the works and life of important writers.

710. Dance - Twenty dance groups, several dance academies and dance performance centres (e.g., the Susan Dellal Tel Aviv Dance Center) operate in Israel. There are both professional ballet and modern dance companies, most notably Bat-Sheva, The Israel Ballet, Bat Dor and U'dmama (performed mostly by the deaf). Several other troupes focus on popular folklore such as the Jerusalem Dance Company. Israeli and foreign companies perform throughout the country, usually in concert halls. Special dance festivals are held annually in different places in the country. The most notable of these is the Carmiel Folk Dance Festival. Due to the large popularity of folk-dancing in Israel, many community centres throughout the country offer dancing activities and classes.

Cultural and entertainment shows - theatres, orchestras
and dance groups

	Spectators (thousands)	Runs	Works of art		ShowsInstitutions 1/
			Thereof: Israeli	Total
Theatres
1989/1990	1 999.2	5 525	65	136	13611
1990/1991	1 394.0	4 218	92	151	15111
1991	1 910.4	4 782	50	148	14811
1992	2 029.8	4 696	41	159	15911
1993	1 800.4	5 246	91	171	17113
1994	1 886.6	4 987	73	145	14512
1995	1 942.1	5 075	81	162	16212
Orchestras and opera
1989/1990	699.5	767	42	693	25211
1990/1991	609.1	690	50	598	25611
1991	708.2	852	50	715	30313
1992	765.0	1 099	42	743	30213
1993	794.6	937	33	574	28513
1994	950.8	928	94	894	29911
1995	1 098.0	1 063	53	803	34112
Dance groups
1989/1990	259.3	503	55	85	94 8
1990/1991	233.7	506	69	108	107 8
1991	311.8	599	69	95	105 8
1992	262.1	504	67	84	58 6
1993	327.7	645	62	91	81 7
1994	315.0	602	68	100	71 7
1995	399.8	621	75	103	78 7

Source: The Central Bureau of Statistics.

1/ Institutions that reported (see explanation in introduction).

Cultural identity and heritage of population groups

711. Being a multicultural society, Israel assists various groups in preserving and promoting their culture.

Arab, Druze and Circassian cultural heritage

712. Assistance is given to the promotion of the cultural heritage of Arab, Druze and Circassian minority groups. In these sectors, the State supports, inter alia, oriental orchestras, museums, theatres, and dance groups. Events such as the Arab Culture Month, the Olive Festival (of the Druze in the Galilee) and the Circassian Culture Festival (held in Kfar Kama and Richniya, in the Upper Galilee) have become an important part of the cultural life of those sectors of the population and attract many visitors. In addition, literary works and journals are regularly published in the Arabic language, thus accommodating the needs of the Arabic-speaking sectors.

713. Examples of specific cultural institutions supported in the Arab sector are the professional Arab theatres –such as the Nationwide Arab Theater, and the Beit Hagefen theatre in Haifa – and the Arab Orchestra, which plays Arab classical music. There are various museums dedicated to Arab and Islamic culture, most notably, the Institute for Islamic Art in Jerusalem and the Museum for Arab Folklore (see below). In the Druze sector, the State supports two professional and six amateur theatre companies, four music centres, two professional singing ensembles, and five representative dance companies. Infrastructure has been laid for three Druze museums, and at present there is a library in each of the 16 Druze villages in the country.

Jewish cultural heritage

714. In addition, Israel encourages and fosters cultural activities designed to preserve and promote traditional Jewish heritage of all kinds. Since Jews have come to Israel from 102 countries, different traditions and cultural heritage were introduced in Israel by members of the various Jewish communities. It is the policy of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport to support the continued existence of this cultural heterogeneity, which constitutes part of the cultural identity of the nation. Hence, support is given to dozens of professional and amateur performing groups of dancers, singers and music ensembles who preserve the cultural tradition and ethnic heritage of the various communities.

715. Examples of such groups are the Inbal Dance Company, inspired by the Yemenite Jewish heritage; the Ha'Breira Ha'Tivit musical ensemble which draws upon North African ethnic roots; The East and West Orchestra, which also draws upon the heritage of Mediterranean countries and North Africa; and Bustan Avraham, which combines Jewish and Arab cultural elements.

716. Jewish religious scholastic achievements constitute an integral part of the Jewish, and thus Jewish-Israeli, culture. The teaching of its various elements, such as the Bible, Talmud, legends, religious law, and Jewish philosophy, as well as related Jewish music, art and history, is held in several institutional and cultural frameworks.

717. Languages which were developed and used by the Jews in the Diaspora are considered part of the national cultural heritage. In order to preserve two of these languages – Yiddish and Ladino - in which some of the greatest cultural achievements of the Jewish people were created, the Knesset enacted in 1966, the National Authority for Yiddish Culture Law and the National Authority for Ladino Culture Law. Both laws provide for the recognition of these two languages and cultures; the promotion and encouragement of contemporary artistic works in those languages; assistance for institutions in which activity relating to these cultures takes place (e.g., Yiddish-speaking theatre); compilation of cultural treasures, both oral and written, in and relating to these languages; and encouraging the publication of selected works in these languages as well as adequate translations into Hebrew. The annual budgeting allocations for each of these languages amounts to approximately NIS 750,000.

Institutions involved in the promotion of cultural identity

718. Universities and research institutes conduct studies of ethnic cultures, and conferences and symposia are held on the subject. Numerous academic publications dealing with a wide spectrum of topics relating to cultural identity are published every year.

719. Several museums in Israel focus upon various population groups and the preservation of their unique cultures:

- The Museum of the Jewish Diaspora (Tel Aviv) - relates the unique story and culture of the Jewish people since the time it exiled from its homeland and presents its history, tradition and heritage.

- The Center for Babylonian Heritage (Or Yehuda) - presents the culture, art, history and folklore of Iraqi Jewry.

- The Museum for Arab Folklore (Acre) - exhibits traditional arts and folklore items of the Arab population.

- The Institute for Islamic Art (Jerusalem) - houses extensive permanent exhibitions of pottery, textiles, jewellery, ceremonial objects and the like, covering a thousand years of Islamic art, Spain to India, and features temporary exhibits on special themes.

- The Center for the Integration of Oriental and Sephardi Jewish Heritage constitutes another source of information on Jewish culture. This centre, located in the Ministry of Education, is responsible for the integration of Oriental and Sephardi Jewish heritage into the various sectors of education and culture.

The role of mass media and communication in promoting participation in cultural life

720. Legislation in the field of mass communications exists in a number of spheres:

721. The Broadcasting Authority Law 1965 - The law regulates the activities of the Broadcasting Authority responsible for several TV and radio channels. Among the roles of the authority are the broadcasting of educational and informative programmes, as well as entertainment in the areas of culture, science and the arts; strengthening of the links to Jewish heritage; reflecting the life and cultural treasures of Jewish communities in different countries; promoting Jewish and Israeli creative work; and accommodating the needs of the Arab-speaking population. The Broadcasting Authority gives ample expression to Israeli cultural production and creation. In a recent move, one of the authority's radio stations has begun to play Israeli music only.

722. The Second Authority for Television and Radio Law 1990 - This law defines the functions of the Second Authority, which is responsible for the commercial TV Channel 2, and regional radio stations. Among the roles of the authority is the provision of suitable expression to the cultural variety of Israeli society, of Israeli minorities and of the different international cultures. In order to further promote Hebrew and Israeli works, Channel 2 franchise-holders are required to broadcast local productions (i.e., productions made in Israel in the Hebrew language), for at least one third of the air time. The franchise-holders are also required to invest in Israeli cinematic films.

723. The "Bezeq" Law, 1982 - This law addresses, among other things, the operation of cable and satellite TV broadcasting in Israel. It prescribes the taking into consideration of the cultural variety of the Israeli society and the needs of different regions of the country. Consequently, it facilitates the establishment of local community channels and the preparation of programmes on cultural subjects, including those of minority cultures.

724. The media plays an important role in promoting participation in the cultural life of Israel. Many radio and television programmes are dedicated to art, literature, movies, theatre, Jewish culture and other ethnic cultures. Special broadcasts cover cultural and artistic events and report on festivals and shows held inside and outside Israel. In addition, advertisements for cultural performances appear in all media channels. Programmes in Arabic and in other languages used in Israel (English, Russian, and Amharic) are also offered on TV and radio.

725. The Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport operates an educational television service which is granted by law broadcast time on the private and public channels. Educational television aims, inter alia, to increase participation in cultural life; to provide learning and knowledge in culture and art, science, communications and other fields; to increase involvement in educational, cultural and social matters; and to give expression to all facets of the cultural heritage of Israel's citizens.

726. Further sources of promotion of culture through the mass media are the Open University (a distance learning institution designed to promote academic education among wide populations) which broadcasts classes on radio and TV; foreign TV channels broadcasting in Israel through cable channels; and the Internet.

727. All daily newspapers include special sections and supplements devoted to cultural issues and cover on a regular basis cultural events. In addition, a number of culture-related journals are published on literature, art, photography and other subjects.

Preservation and display of mankind's cultural heritage

728. Much attention is paid in Israel to the preservation and presentation of antiquities and historical sites.

729. Preservation of antiquities - The preservation of antiquities dating from before 1700 CE falls under the jurisdiction of the Antiquities Authority. The latter operates in accordance with the Antiquities Authority Law 1978. The authority deals with the excavation, preservation, development, and restoration of antiquities and antiquities sites; supervision of archaeological excavations; management, safeguarding and supervision of the State's antiquities treasures; and the carrying-out of inspections intended to ensure prevention of infringements of the Antiquities Law.

730. Many important archeological findings, such as the Dead Sea Scrolls, are presented in museums and cultural centres. In addition, many sites such as Massada, Nabatian and Byzantine cities, Roman theatres, ancient synagogues, and prehistoric caves are open to the general public. The maintenance and operation of such sites (as opposed to their excavation and restoration) are the responsibility of the National Parks, Natural Reserves and Commemoration Sites Council.

731. Preservation of other sites - The Public Council for Preservation of Sites is in charge of the preservation of sites and buildings of historical value from after 1700 CE (e.g., the "illegal" immigrants camp from pre-State days at Atlit and buildings in Tel Aviv designed in the Bauhaus style).

732. The State of Israel is involved in professional international cooperation in the field of preservation and restoration of cultural treasures, through the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property and the International Council of Monuments and Sites.

Freedom of artistic creation and performance

733. It is the policy of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport to support the protection of artistic creation and performance. Artists in Israel express themselves in various artistic fields and often express political views. However, government support is afforded without any discrimination on the basis of the political views of the artist in question, and some of the artistic projects which are receiving State funds reflect sharp criticism of the Government.

734. Although a film-rating commission with censorship powers still exists in Israel (whereas other forms of official non-security-related censorship have been abolished), the Supreme Court of Israel (sitting as an administrative court) exercises broad powers of review over its decisions, and has nullified on several occasions decisions to censor controversial artistic films (involving pornography). The court has held that freedom of artistic and creative expression is a protected constitutional right which can only be restricted in extreme situations involving a clear showing of severe threat to public order or safety.

735. The Supreme Court has stated that:

"This rule gives constitutional protection not only to the general freedom of expression, but also to the freedom of artistic expression. This last freedom can be regarded as part of the freedom of expression, 'from which, in part, the freedom of artistic creation in literature and in all forms of expression, is derived' [cite omitted]. 'Freedom of expression is the artist's liberty to open his/her heart, fly high and liberate his/her thoughts' [cite omitted] ... It is based on the conception of human beings as autonomous individuals entitled to self-fulfilment as creators and consumers of such creative work. It is the freedom to choose themes and the way of their presentation, and the other person's liberty to hear and absorb them. Of course, the freedom of artistic expression is not an absolute freedom. As is the case with other liberties, it is only of relative value, and it can be limited for a proper cause, provided that the restriction is not excessive."

H.C. 4804/94

Station Film Co. v. The Films and Plays Review Council

, Takdin-Supreme, vol. 97 (1) 712, 718.

736. Furthermore, the Court states that:

"... [O]ur perceptions do not permit us to place restrictions upon the freedom of expression because of a non-extreme hardship caused thereby. Only the infliction of a deep, extraordinary and blatant insult may justify limiting the freedom of expression [cite omitted] ... As to the degree of probability that damage will occur ..., we have adopted a rule saying that only proximate certainty that public order or safety will be jeopardized may permit a restriction on the application of the right in a concrete case by a statutory authority ..."

H.C. 806/88

City Studios, Inc. v. The Films and Plays Review Council

, P.D. vol. 43 (2) 22, 30.

Professional education in culture and art

737. There are 14 professional post-secondary art schools, recognized by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport, which provide training in a variety of artistic areas. Seven of these institutions have been authorized by the Council of Higher Education to grant academic degrees to graduates. These include Bezalel - the academy of arts and design - the Rubin Academy of Music, and the Shenkar School of Fashion and Textile. In addition, universities have art departments in which the history of art, art appreciation, film-making, theatre, music and other culture-related topics are taught. Regional colleges also have art departments in which programmes and courses in film-making, theatre, plastic arts, dance, music and other art forms are given.

738. Certain universities and colleges also offer study programmes in the administration of cultural institutions.

Other measures for the conservation, development and diffusion of culture

739. The Mediterranean Culture Forum: In order to improve the coordination activities aimed at integrating cultural preservation, a Forum for Mediterranean Culture has been jointly established by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Van Leer Research Institute and Mishkenot Sha'ananim Cultural Center. The forum initiates various activities to preserve and disseminate a combination of eastern and western Mediterranean culture. At this stage, the forum is initiating 10 projects dealing with topics such as: Jewish, Christian and Muslim relations; relations between Sephardim (Jews originating from Muslim countries) and Ashkenazim (Jews originating from European countries) through theatrical performances, music, journals and films; and the exchange of culture, knowledge and tradition.

740. The Israel Prize: The prize is awarded in the fields of science and art, commemorating the lifetime achievements of renowned personalities, scholarly thinkers, promoters of Israeli heritage, scientists, writers, cultural figures and artists. It expresses the State's gratitude of the recipients' activities and achievements, as well as their contribution to society. The Israel Prize is awarded annually on the basis of the recommendations of a public committee, with the approval of the Minister of Education, Culture and Sport.

741. Special cultural programmes for the disadvantaged: Much attention is being given by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport to the cultural needs of disadvantaged groups and sectors of the population. This includes supporting cultural activities for the disabled such as dance groups, orchestras and choirs for handicapped youth, the wheelchair-bound and children suffering from Down Syndrome.

742. Promotion of culture within education: Subjects related to the arts and culture are taught in all levels of the education system. Literature, foreign languages, arts, photography, theatre and film are part of both the compulsory and elective curriculum. There are also several adult education arts and culture programmes. Within the framework of secondary education, there are special schools for the arts which place special emphasis on the arts, in addition to the regular curriculum.

743. Cultural enrichment is an important educational element. Schools receive a "culture basket" which includes annual attendance at some five to seven artistic performances per student. Furthermore, a wide variety of cultural activities take place within the schools themselves, including student orchestras and choirs, dance troupes and theatre groups.

744. In addition, many cultural activities for children and youth take place in community centres, in cultural, youth and sports centres, youth clubs, youth and in various other extracurricular activities.

745. With the aid of Mifal Hapayis (the National Lottery), the Government is building 70 centres for science and the arts in lower secondary schools (for the 12 to 14-year-old age group), in consonance with the policy to develop interdisciplinary curricula in science and the arts. Construction of 45 such centres began during 1996-1997. Other cultural facilities in schools throughout the country include performance arenas and art workshops.

746. Another "access to culture" project under way is the computerization of libraries, and the establishment of Internet access in libraries and schools.

International cultural cooperation

747. Israel has cultural agreements with a large number of countries worldwide. Some thirty public festivals are held in Israel, some of which include the participation of many artistic groups from abroad. Many of the world's leading performing artists perform in Israel on a commercial basis. Similarly, important international art exhibitions are presented in Israel from time to time.

748. The State of Israel, Israeli organizations and individuals are members of various international cultural and art organizations. Israeli artists participate on a regular basis in conferences worldwide, some of which convene in Israel. Throughout the years, Israel has obtained valuable cooperation on the part of international organizations and foundations in the field of culture.

The enjoyment of scientific progress

Institutional promotion of research and development

749. The basic structure of the R & D system in Israel was laid down in the late 1950s by a high-level committee headed by Ephraim Katzir, himself a scientist of world renown and later-President of Israel. The committee suggested that each ministry be made responsible for R & D within its own areas of public accountability; and that all R & D activities be directed and coordinated by a Chief Scientist. The committee's recommendations were adopted by the Government in 1968. Hence, a two-tier approach exists wherein each ministry remains free to pursue its own R & D agenda while two high-level forums were created to ensure inter-ministerial cooperation and collaboration. The first is the Ministerial Committee for Science and Technology; and the second is the Chief Scientists' Forum. Both forums are headed by the Minister of Science.

750. In addition, the consultative National Council for Research and Development (NCRD) advises the Government in its consolidation of a comprehensive national R & D policy, and provides it assistance in determining the allocation of resources to scientific institutions and projects. In 1994, a temporary committee, The Executive National Committee for the Development of Scientific and Technological Strategic Research (the "Committee of Thirteen"), was established by the NCRD to identify priority areas. (See below.)

751. The implementation of Israel's R & D policy is divided among three different ministries:

- Basic research is under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport. The general basic research budgeting policy is not decided by the Ministry itself, but rather by an independent Council for Higher Education (composed largely by public figures in the field of higher education), chaired by the Minister of Education. The Council also has a six-member Planning and Budgeting Committee which authorizes the actual allocation of governmental funds to universities and other institutes of higher education. In the performance of its role, the Ministry of Education receives the advice of yet another consultative committee: the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, a statutory body composed of leading academics. In 1987 the academy submitted to the Government a master-plan for basic research, which has been approved and is being implemented gradually.

- Strategic-generic R & D is supervised by the Ministry of Science. The Executive National Committee for the Development of Scientific and Technological Strategic Research (the Committee of Thirteen) was established in 1994 by the NCRD and the Ministry of Science to identify priority areas, with market potential, suitable for a concerted national strategic R & D effort. Special supervision committees were subsequently assigned the role of supervising the progress in each of the priority areas determined by the Committee of Thirteen. These areas include biotechnology, electro-optics, micro-electronics, advanced materials, and telecommunications and information technologies.

- Applied industrial R & D is within the powers of the Ministry of Industry and Trade. The Ministry, operating through the office of its Chief Scientists, provides support to specific R & D projects of perceived commercial utility.

The national R & D budget

752. Israeli industry has traditionally under-invested in long-term R & D. The business sector in Israel invests on average 36 per cent of the total national expenditure on R & D compared to an average of 51 per cent for Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development countries. Two national programmes attempt to compensate for this failure on the part of industry:

1. The Ministry of Science provides additional R & D funds to high priority fields. The ministry aims to create a critical mass of knowledge, know-how and experience in priority areas to be later diffused in industry and implemented in the creation of new and advanced value-added products.

2. The Ministry of Industry and Trade funds shorter-term industry-motivated R & D, and supports factories and other industry businesses investing in R & D. The Ministry normally funds 66 per cent of the research costs of approved projects.

753. Strategic generic research accounts for only 8 per cent of the government national R & D budget. In comparison, basic research receives 34 per cent of the budget and applied industrial research – through the Office of the Chief Scientist of the Ministry of Industry and Trade – 38 per cent.

Expenditure of government ministries on civilian R & D,
by type of expenditure

	Transfers	Purchases of civilian R & D	Intramural expenses	Total
			Current expenses	WagesTotal
	NIS million, at current prices
1990	335	33	61	67128 436
1991	443	33	63	81150 532
1992	530	45	81	91172 747
1993	727	41	76	110188 956
1994	347	53	122	1642861 286
1995	-	-	-	--1 457
	At 1989 prices
1990	286	28	52	56108 422
1991	322	29	50	56105 456
1992	340	23	52	57110 478
1993	411	23	44	71115 549
1994	487	27	52	81133 647
1995	-	-	-	-- 654
	Per cent change in previous year
1990	10.0	-13.7	-14.4	6.7-4.74.0
1991	12.5	4.3	-5.0	0.2-2.38.2
1992	5.5	-1.4	5.7	2.34.24.7
1993	20.3	-18.2	-16.3	23.64.614.8
1994	18.5	15.4	18.2	14.115.717.8
1995	-	-	-	--1.1

Source: The Central Bureau of Statistics. National expenditure on civilian R & D,

by operating and financing sector


	Operating
	Private non-profit institution	Higher education a/	Government	Business	Total
	At current prices				1993
TOTAL - NIS million	325.0	1 431.0	504.2	1 331.3	4 312.1
- per cents	7	35	12	46	100
Financing sector
Business	0	1	0	34	36
Government	3	16	3	12	40
Higher education a/	0	10	0	0	10
Private non-profit inst.	3	2	2	0	7
Rest of the world	1	6	1	0	7
	NIS million, at 1989 prices
1989	164	636	260	934	1 994
1990	173	678	245	931	2 027
1991	176	693	265	1 028	2 162
1992	180	774	284	1 117	2 355
1993 b/	196	820	285	1 153	2 454
	Per cent change c/ on previous year
1990	5.7	6.6	-5.8	-0.3	1.7
1991	1.8	2.3	8.2	10.3	6.6
1992	2.3	11.7	7.2	8.7	8.8
1993 b/	8.9	5.9	0.4	3.2	4.2

Source: The Central Bureau of Statistics.

a/ Incl. the Universities and Weizman Institute of Science.

b/ Early estimate.

c/ Per cent change was calculated before rounding.

Expenditure on separately budgeted research in universities
by scientific field, institution and source of funding

At 1990/91 prices
	1990/91	1988/89	1984/85	1981/82
	NIS million
TOTAL (1)	274.2	260.2	273.6	140.3
	Per cents
TOTAL (1)	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0
Scientific field
Natural sciences and mathematics	51.3	58.0	43.2	45.6
Engineering and architecture	13.7	12.3	17.1	19.7
Agriculture	3.7	3.6	5.3	4.2
Medicine and paramedical courses	13.9	13.1	14.0	14.3
Social sciences and other	17.3	12.8	14.4	15.6
Institution
The Hebrew University	32.4	31.8	35.4	36.8
Technion R & D Foundation	15.3	14.3	13.4	20.2
Tel-Aviv University	15.4	7.8	10.5	14.1
Bar-Ilan University	4.0	4.3	3.3	3.1
Haifa University	0.6	0.3	0.7	0.7
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev	10.2	3.5	6.6	6.8
Weizmann Institute of Science	22.1	31.4	23.5	16.3
Source of financing
Israel - Total	56.7	55.4	57.7	56.4
Academic	6.3	5.6	6.2	7.0
Public	42.0	34.0	36.3	43.6
Private	6.4	10.3	12.5	7.8
Foreign sources	41.3	46.6	42.3	41.6
	Per cent financing of Israeli sources
Scientific field
Natural sciences and mathematics	50.0	45.2	51.8	.
Engineering and architecture	77.0	63.3	77.2	.
Agriculture	71.7	74.6	52.3	.

Source: The Central Bureau of Statistics.

Support of scientific activity and dissemination of scientific knowledge

754. Special projects: The Government of Israel supports several programmes designed to promote unique scientific activity and disseminate scientific knowledge.

755. Ministry of Science projects: The Ministry of Science gives support to a wide range of special programmes. Support is normally given for only one year at a time, but grantees are encouraged to re-submit an application for further funding. Applications for support are reviewed according to the Ministry of Science's current criteria for sponsoring public bodies and projects (which were last updated in April 1995). Emphasis is placed on the geographic and demographic dispersion of scientific and technological activities and knowledge, both to peripheral regions and to the populations of immigrants from the former USSR and Ethiopia. The major areas of support are:

756. Regional research and development centres: The Ministry of Science supports regional R & D centres in peripheral areas which strive to create and stimulate science and technology R & D activities intended to benefit the region in which they are situated, and to attend to the needs of local population. Currently, five such regional R & D centres receive Ministry funding: the Golan R & D Center; the Mitzpeh Ramon Center in the northern Negev; the Katif Center for the Study of Coastal Deserts; the Galilee Center for R & D (which promotes R & D by the Israeli Arab scientific community); and the Hatzevah R & D Center, in the southern Arava Negev region.

757. Enrichment activities - science and technology: The Ministry of Science supports a wide range of programmes aimed at advancing the scientific and technological literacy of the general public, with priority given to educating children and youth outside the main urban centres. In particular, support is offered to unique extracurricular activities not available through the education system due to budgetary constraints; programmes for populations who otherwise have limited selection of enrichment activities; programmes for the disadvantaged, and programmes for the Arab and Druze minority sector. Only projects open to all residents of the locality in which they take place, on a non-discriminatory basis, are eligible for support.

758. Some of the programmes under this category which were funded in 1997 are: science workshops, seminars, summer schools and scientific tours for youth and children; the establishment of scientific facilities such as a communication station, a small scale observatory, and scientific activity centres; the publication of the first few issues of a new popular scientific journal in Arabic; scientific exhibitions; and scientific competitions. Overall, 15 projects at a total cost of around $300,000 were funded in 1997.

759. Two national science museums operate under the auspices of the Ministry of Science: The National Museum for Science and Technology of Haifa, and The Science Museum of Jerusalem. These museums receive part of their annual income ($1 million in 1997) from the Ministry.

760. The Ministry of Science also organized in 1996 and again in 1997 a special event - "The Opening of the Scientific Year", the purpose of which was to bring public attention to the importance of scientific activity for improving the quality and standard of living in Israel. On this occasion, and in order to encourage youth involvement with science, the Ministry invited adolescents from all over the country to present their unique projects to representatives of the scientific community, and held a competition on the best popular scientific article. The Ministry of Science is considering to make this event a tradition, and is currently planning next year's competition.

761. Encouragement of scientific interchange: Apart from the support given by the Ministry of Science to bi-national and international conferences and seminars (see infra), it also provides partial financial assistance for national conferences conducted under the auspices of other private or public institutions. This support is aimed at creating opportunities for high-level scientific interchange. The additional support offered by the Ministry encourages, whenever possible, students and young scientists to attend them.

762. Ministry of Trade and Industry projects: The Ministry of Trade and Industry operates several "technology incubators". Their aim is to create a supportive framework that will enable resource-limited scientists and engineers to work on R & D projects. The incubators offer the developer of a scientific research project a broad logistic infrastructure, including laboratories, instruments, economic management, legal advice and other services.

763. Twenty-eight incubators are operating at present around the country, encompassing 230 running projects (half of which were initiated by new immigrants). Some 1,100 workers are employed in incubators (about 80 per cent of whom are also new immigrants). Every month, an average of 10 new projects are approved for funding by the Ministry. Incubator-sponsored projects may last up to two years. Subsequent research may be eligible for other Ministry financing programmes.

764. The Agricultural Research Administration: Of special importance to scientific progress in Israel are the R & D activities of the Agricultural Research Administration, operating within the Ministry of Agriculture. The administration operates seven research institutes and several experiment stations and experimental farms, and has carried out hundreds of research projects throughout the country.

- The Centre for Field and Garden Crops studies cultivation techniques, strains of plants, medical agricultural, agro-technical methods and biotechnology.

- The Institute for Plantations tests new species and strains for marketing qualities, irrigation and fertilization methods, climate and soil adaptability; studying ways of controlling fruit ripening and designing orchards.

- The Institute for Animals studies feeding; reproduction and fertility in cattle and sheep, qualities of eggs and poultry; study of animal hybridization and genetic engineering.

- The Flora Protection Institute conducts research projects for identifying plants' diseases; development of environment-friendly pesticides and of resistive plants.

- The Land and Water Institute studies irrigation methods and water and land quality.

- The Institute for Technology and Storage of Agricultural Produce examines the handling of agricultural products, and the development of healthy food products.

- The Agricultural Engineering Institute carries research projects concerning agricultural machinery and their adaptation to Israeli agriculture.

- The Center for International Agricultural Cooperation and Instruction (operated jointly with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) runs training courses in agricultural development intended for hundreds of students. Some course are given outside Israel to foreign agriculturists (e.g. in Latin America, Asia, Africa, Egypt and Eastern Europe).

765. Research grants and scholarships are awarded by several private and public funds, in addition to the regular university funding. This system constitutes an important source of support in scientific activity. Examples of such financial support are the following funding programmes:

766. The Council for Higher Education offers over 20 three-year grants (Alon Grants for Young Scientists) annually, which permit outstanding young scientists to find posts at the universities; The Rashi Foundation, a private fund, partly supported by the public Planning and Budgeting Committee, provides 15 immigrant scientists with annual grants; (the Guestella Foundation); Similar grants are awarded to another 15 senior immigrant scientists by the Berekha Foundation; The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities supports research programmes concerning the fauna, flora and geology of Israel; and The Rothschild Foundation supports new immigrants studying for a doctorate in natural sciences.

767. Publications: Numerous scientific publications are published in Israel every year. Some of these publications are funded by the academic institutions, whereas others are supported by public and private bodies.

Freedom of scientific research and creative activity

768. The protection of scientific and creative expression is considered part of the freedom of speech, which constitutes a fundamental value of the Israeli legal system. The Supreme Court of Israel has stated:

"The important issues, that the decision in the present case is hinged upon, are freedom of speech and academic freedom. We must protect them in every way, we are obliged to defend them and we must nurture them as if they were 'protected natural treasures'. We need to further recall that the protection granted to these liberties through a Basic Law, or by way of constitutional interpretation that construes them as originating from a Basic Law, or declarations on the part of State authorities committing themselves to those principles, is not enough. A necessary prerequisite to the existence of these freedoms is the existence of public trust in their actual implementation. If a person does not truly believe that he/she is entitled to freedom of speech or academic freedom, subject of course to recognized limitations, he/she is bound to act as if those freedoms do not exist. If the public does not believe in them, the liberties are expected to recede ...

"The reasons for protecting academic freedom are numerous and diverse, and much written about. Research, studying and teaching in every field of the human spirit, without ball and chain, are uplifting for any individual within society, and through their effect upon the individual they affect the society as a whole. It also fulfils a basic human need ... Among the reasons for protecting this freedom, it is possible to refer to the society's interest in promoting values such as: 'knowledge, individual self-fulfilment, curiosity, etc. – values the promotion of which sometimes neglected, since they are outside the centre of attention of the executive social institutions. Therefore, it is the role of universities to research, accumulate knowledge and teach' [cite omitted]. The basic proposition is that a teacher in the academic world is entitled to conduct research and teach in his/her area, in whatever way he/she sees fit, and it is best that non-academic elements will impose minimal restrictions upon him/her, his/her students and their interaction."

Cr.A. 2831/95

Elba v. The State of Israel

, Takdin-Supreme, vol. 96 (3) 97, 171-175

769. Hence, scientific publications and interchange cannot be restricted save in extreme situations, i.e. where they almost certainly threaten public safety or order. Furthermore, according to the principles of Israeli administrative law, the Government cannot withhold support from a scientific or creative expression merely by reason of objection to the contents of that expression.

International cooperation

770. Israel's scientists are very much interwoven in the international scientific community. One third of all Israeli scientific papers in international journals include foreign co-authors. Academics receive generous professional travel and sabbatical allowances as part of their terms of employment. Most postdoctoral fellows spend one or two years in world-class research centres abroad before beginning their research careers.

771. International scientific cooperation is particularly vital for Israel in several ways. Joint research programmes and cost-sharing help stretch Israel's limited research budget, and gives Israeli scientists access to large multi-billion-dollar research facilities that Israel cannot afford to duplicate. Collaboration with scientists abroad provides intellectual synergy with a large pool of talent and helps Israel maintain world-class scientific standards despite its small size.

772. In accordance with this approach, the Ministry of Science administers various international programmes which are intended to facilitate and encourage collaboration between researchers from Israel and foreign countries. In particular, it operates programmes of scientific cooperation based on bilateral agreements with 26 countries around the world. Support is given in the following three areas of activities:

- joint research projects;

- exchange of scientists (at different levels of seniority: doctoral students, junior and senior researchers);

- joint conferences.

773. Within the framework of each agreement, and in coordination with the respective country, the Ministry periodically issues invitations to submit proposals, directed for researchers competing for joint funding.

774. Each year the Ministry of Science supports two international scientific conferences, and several bilateral ones. In order to ensure wide dissemination of cutting-edge scientific knowledge the Ministry regularly subsidizes the entrance fee of participants from the general public in such conferences.

775. The biggest international scientific cooperation programme in which Israel is taking part involves the European Union. Israel joined the EU Fourth Framework Program for R & D in 1996. The agreement commits Israel to pay an annual membership fee of $40 million. In return, Israeli scientists are able to participate and compete for grants in the following four activities: research projects with scientists from EU; research projects with scientists from non-EU member States; grants for dissemination and implementation of research results; and, grants for training and mobility of researchers (conferences, mutual visits, scholarships, etc.).

776. The agreement is based on the principle of reciprocity, and entitles researchers from the EU to have access to Israel's national programmes for R & D. This obligation on the part of Israel is currently in the implementation process.

777. The Ministry of Science coordinates Israeli participation in several international organizations and research facilities, such as CERN (European Nuclear Research Center), EMBO (European Molecular Biology Organization), EMBL (European Molecular Biology Laboratory) and UNESCO.

778. In the last two years Israel gained observer status in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development and participates in the organization's activities in the area of science and technology, sharing information and acquiring further knowledge on science and technology policy. Israel has also been invited by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization to take part in the organization's scientific activities, under its Mediterranean Dialogue.

779. Additional international cooperation is exercized by the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities. The Academy operates a scientific centre in Cairo, the aim of which is to assist Israeli researchers in work associated with Egypt and its culture, and to encourage cooperation with Egyptian researchers in all spheres of science and research. The academy also has an observer status at the European Foundation for Science and takes part in its activities. Among them are the meetings of the permanent committee of the foundation for humanities, social sciences, the European councils for medical research, the European councils for scientific research and the four "scientific nets" of the foundation. It also represents Israel at the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU).

780. The academy runs scientists' exchange programmes with academies in Western Europe and Eastern Europe and promotes contacts with national academies and scientific research communities throughout the world.

The legal protection given to intellectual property

781. Literary and artistic works are protected in Israel by copyright and performers' rights laws. Scientific inventions are protected by the patent laws. The basic principle, according to which intellectual property is protected under Israeli law, was reiterated by the Supreme Court of Israel:

"The right of the creator vis-a-vis his/her creation is also a fundamental principle – the right to protection of property rights. This principle is enshrined in Article 3 of the Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty, according to which it is prohibited to interfere with one's property. In the jurisprudence of this court the principle was enumerated among the fundamental values, on the same level of freedom of speech [cite omitted]. In the framework of property rights, it is natural that intellectual property is also protected."

P.C.A 2687/92

Geva v. Walt Disney Corp.

, P.D. 48 (1) 251, 269

Copyrights

782. Israel's main copyright law – the Copyright Law is based on the United Kingdom Copyright Act of 1911. However, it forms only a part of Israeli copyright statutory law. The other primary copyright statutory instruments include the Copyright Ordinance 1924; Copyright Order (Berne Convention) 1953; and the Copyright Order (Universal Copyright Convention) 1955.

783. Protection granted to the holder of a copyright includes the exclusive right to (a) copy or reproduce the work; (b) translate or otherwise adapt the work; (c) distribute copies of the work; and (d) publicly communicate the work. It is not necessary to submit a formal application in order to obtain copyright protection in Israel. It is generally recommended that authors mark their works with a copyright notice including the author's name and the date of creation. Copyright protection subsists for the life of the author and for a period of 70 years after his/her death .

784. Both civil and criminal remedies against breaches of copyrights are provided for in the law. The civil remedies include action for damages, accounting for profits, and court seizure orders and injunctions. As to criminal remedies, the Copyright Ordinance 1924, as amended subsequently, provides that commercial infringement of a copyright copies constitutes a criminal offence punishable by up to three years of imprisonment and the possible seizure and destruction of infringing copies. The law also provides for limitations and exceptions to the protection of the copyright: fair use of the protected material is permitted if used for private study, research, criticism, review, or a journalistic summary.

785. Several significant amendments have been introduced in the Copyright Ordinance which have substantially modified the law and brought it to date with recent developments.

1. In 1981, the concept of moral rights was added to the law. Consequently, each author has the right to have his/her name applied to his/her own work, as well as the right to seek relief against distortion, modification or derogatory actions in relation to the work, which may offend the author's reputation or dignity.

2. Since 1988 computer software is also protected by copyright on the same terms as "literary works".

3. Since March 1996 the renting and leasing rights of audio and visual copyrighted works belong exclusively to the copyright holder. Furthermore, the Government was instructed to transfer 5 per cent of the market retail proceeds from the sales of blank audio and video cassettes (deducted from VAT proceeds), to right holders subject to the supervision of a special committee.

4. The protection of copyright laws has been extended to databases and compilations, even if the "raw material" data was a matter of public property.

786. Israel is a member of the following conventions:

- The Berne Convention under its Brussels Act,

- The Universal Copyright Convention under its initial Act,

- The Geneva Convention of 1971 for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms Against Unauthorized Duplication of their Phonograms, and

- The World Trade Organization, and the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).

787. Lastly, the Copyright Law Reform Committee set up by Israel's Ministry of Justice has completed its work and a new draft copyright bill has been distributed for comment to members of the public.

788. Performers' rights: under the Performers' Rights Law 1984, a singer, actor, music player, dancer, or any other performer of a literary, artistic, dramatic or musical work is entitled to prevent the recording, copying, broadcasting and commercial use of his/her performance without permission. The court may order to confiscate unauthorized copies of the performance.

Patents

789. Patents are protected in Israel by two separate acts: The Patents Law 1967 and the Patents and Designs Ordinance. Under these laws an inventor may register a patent to an invention if he/she can prove innovation, usefulness, commercial applicability and inventive progress. The proprietor of a patent is entitled to prevent anyone from using the patent without his/her permission.

790. The Registrar of Patents is authorized to issue coercion permits, enabling others to use the patented invention, if he/she is convinced that the proprietor is exploiting the monopoly over the patent. Other restrictions imposed upon the scope of protection offered by the patent system is the limited life span of a registered patent (20 years), and the exclusion of inventions constituting bodily medical treatments, and artificial animal and plant species from the system.

791. The policy considerations underlying the institution of patents and its interplay with coercion permits was analysed at length by the Supreme Court of Israel:

"The purpose of the patent system is not a mere consideration granted to the inventor in return for the public benefit derived from his/her invention. The purpose is also to encourage research. Exchange of opinions, information and thoughts is essential to the advancement and fruition of research. But until the research receives protection in the form of exclusivity, it is only natural that inventors will seek to keep their invention confidential, and look for the most efficient use thereof. Early recognition of an invention will not necessarily discourage other researchers, so that they will no longer pursue the same area. On the contrary, in the absence of a patent protection system, it is feared that some will settle for plagiarizing an existing invention. A protection against imitation will encourage additional research, designed to find other uses, advancements, innovations and refinement beyond the existing and protected patent. This is how the patent system offers incentives for originality and creative imagination. Early publicity (which will not be facilitated unless a patent exists) will create interest in the scientific community, bolster team work and encourage further independent research. It is a case of 'writer's jealousy which advocates wisdom'. Furthermore, lacking the incentive created by exclusiveness, which ensures a financial reward for breakthrough findings, the requisite research resources will not be made available ..."

C.A. 665/84

Sanopy Ltd. v. Unipharm Ltd.

, P.D. vol. 41 (4) 729, 743

"The patent system involves a conflict between two important public interests. On the one hand, the interest of development and inventive creation, and on the other, the interest of free economic activity. To advance the first set of interests, the legislator must provide an economic incentive to the inventor ... Therefore, the legislator decided to establish the patent system and grant the inventor exclusive monopoly on the use of the invention, thereby guaranteeing him/her reimbursement for developing expenses and a certain profit, i.e. an incentive to invest in the invention. But this solution implies compromising the other public interests mentioned above, to the extent that monopoly hinders free competition. And so, in order to protect this interest, the legislator decided to restrict the inventor's monopoly. In this restricted monopoly we can find what the legislator deems to be the optimal balance between the two colliding principles. These restrictions include the power of the patent registrar, in cases of 'monopoly abuse' on the part of the patent owner, to end the monopoly and permit another person to use the patented invention [cite omitted]. Another restriction can be found in the fact that monopoly is given for a limited time only."

C.A. 427/86

Blass v. Kibbutz Hashomer Hatzair

Dan, P.D. vol. 43 (3) 312, 336.

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